Section 2. Radar Services and Procedures

1-2-1. Radar

a. Capabilities

1. Radar is a method whereby radio waves are transmitted into the air and are then received when they have been reflected by an object in the path of the beam. Range is determined by measuring the time it takes (at the speed of light) for the radio wave to go out to the object and then return to the receiving antenna. The direction of a detected object from a radar site is determined by the position of the rotating antenna when the reflected portion of the radio wave is received.

2. More reliable maintenance and improved equipment have reduced radar system failures to a negligible factor. Most facilities actually have some components duplicated, one operating and another which immediately takes over when a malfunction occurs to the primary component.

b. Limitations

1. It is very important for the aviation community to recognize the fact that there are limitations to radar service and that ATC controllers may not always be able to issue traffic advisories concerning aircraft which are not under ATC control and cannot be seen on radar. (See FIG 1-2-1.)

(a) The characteristics of radio waves are such that they normally travel in a continuous straight line unless they are:

(1) "Bent" by abnormal atmospheric phenomena such as temperature inversions;

(2) Reflected or attenuated by dense objects such as heavy clouds, precipitation, ground obstacles, mountains, etc.; or

(3) Screened by high terrain features.

(b) The bending of radar pulses, often called anomalous propagation or ducting, may cause many extraneous blips to appear on the radar operator's display if the beam has been bent toward the ground or may decrease the detection range if the wave is bent upward. It is difficult to solve the effects of anomalous propagation, but using beacon radar and electronically eliminating stationary and slow moving targets by a method called moving target indicator (MTI) usually negate the problem.

FIG 1-2-1
Limitations to Radar Service

(c) Radar energy that strikes dense objects will be reflected and displayed on the operator's scope thereby blocking out aircraft at the same range and greatly weakening or completely eliminating the display of targets at a greater range. Again, radar beacon and MTI are very effectively used to combat ground clutter and weather phenomena, and a method of circularly polarizing the radar beam will eliminate some weather returns. A negative characteristic of MTI is that an aircraft flying a speed that coincides with the canceling signal of the MTI (tangential or "blind" speed) may not be displayed to the radar controller.

(d) Relatively low altitude aircraft will not be seen if they are screened by mountains or are below the radar beam due to earth curvature. The only solution to screening is the installation of strategically placed multiple radars which has been done in some areas.

(e) There are several other factors which affect radar control. The amount of reflective surface of an aircraft will determine the size of the radar return. Therefore, a small light airplane or a sleek jet fighter will be more difficult to see on radar than a large commercial jet or military bomber. Here again, the use of radar beacon is invaluable if the aircraft is equipped with an airborne transponder. All ARTCCs' radars in the conterminous U.S. and many airport surveillance radars have the capability to interrogate MODE C and display altitude information to the controller from appropriately equipped aircraft. However, there are a number of airport surveillance radars that don't have Mode C display capability and; therefore, altitude information must be obtained from the pilot.

(f) At some locations within the ATC en route environment, secondary-radar-only (no primary radar) gap filler radar systems are used to give lower altitude radar coverage between two larger radar systems, each of which provides both primary and secondary radar coverage. In those geographical areas served by secondary-radar only, aircraft without transponders cannot be provided with radar service. Additionally, transponder equipped aircraft cannot be provided with radar advisories concerning primary targets and weather.

REFERENCE-
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term- Radar.

(g) The controller's ability to advise a pilot flying on instruments or in visual conditions of the aircraft's proximity to another aircraft will be limited if the unknown aircraft is not observed on radar, if no flight plan information is available, or if the volume of traffic and workload prevent issuing traffic information. The controller's first priority is given to establishing vertical, lateral, or longitudinal separation between aircraft flying IFR under the control of ATC.

c. FAA radar units operate continuously at the locations shown in the Airport/Facility Directory, and their services are available to all pilots, both civil and military. Contact the associated FAA control tower or ARTCC on any frequency guarded for initial instructions, or in an emergency, any FAA facility for information on the nearest radar service.

1-2-2. Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS)

a. The ATCRBS, sometimes referred to as secondary surveillance radar, consists of three main components:

1. Interrogator. Primary radar relies on a signal being transmitted from the radar antenna site and for this signal to be reflected or "bounced back" from an object (such as an aircraft). This reflected signal is then displayed as a "target" on the controller's radarscope. In the ATCRBS, the Interrogator, a ground based radar beacon transmitter-receiver, scans in synchronism with the primary radar and transmits discrete radio signals which repetitiously request all transponders, on the mode being used, to reply. The replies received are then mixed with the primary returns and both are displayed on the same radarscope.

2. Transponder. This airborne radar beacon transmitter-receiver automatically receives the signals from the interrogator and selectively replies with a specific pulse group (code) only to those interrogations being received on the mode to which it is set. These replies are independent of, and much stronger than a primary radar return.

3. Radarscope. The radarscope used by the controller displays returns from both the primary radar system and the ATCRBS. These returns, called targets, are what the controller refers to in the control and separation of traffic.

b. The job of identifying and maintaining identification of primary radar targets is a long and tedious task for the controller. Some of the advantages of ATCRBS over primary radar are:

1. Reinforcement of radar targets.

2. Rapid target identification.

3. Unique display of selected codes.

c. A part of the ATCRBS ground equipment is the decoder. This equipment enables a controller to assign discrete transponder codes to each aircraft under his/her control. Normally only one code will be assigned for the entire flight. Assignments are made by the ARTCC computer on the basis of the National Beacon Code Allocation Plan. The equipment is also designed to receive MODE C altitude information from the aircraft.

NOTE-
Refer to figures with explanatory legends for an illustration of the target symbology depicted on radar scopes in the NAS Stage A (en route), the ARTS III (terminal) Systems, and other nonautomated (broadband) radar systems.
(See FIG 1-2-2 and FIG 1-2-3.)

d. It should be emphasized that aircraft transponders greatly improve the effectiveness of radar systems.

REFERENCE-
AIM, Transponder Operation, Paragraph 4-1-19.

1-2-3. Surveillance Radar

a. Surveillance radars are divided into two general categories: Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) and Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR).

1. ASR is designed to provide relatively short- range coverage in the general vicinity of an airport and to serve as an expeditious means of handling terminal area traffic through observation of precise aircraft locations on a radarscope. The ASR can also be used as an instrument approach aid.

2. ARSR is a long-range radar system designed primarily to provide a display of aircraft locations over large areas.

3. Center Radar Automated Radar Terminal Systems (ARTS) Processing (CENRAP) was developed to provide an alternative to a nonradar environment at terminal facilities should an ASR fail or malfunction. CENRAP sends aircraft radar beacon target information to the ASR terminal facility equipped with ARTS. Procedures used for the separation of aircraft may increase under certain conditions when a facility is utilizing CENRAP because radar target information updates at a slower rate than the normal ASR radar. Radar services for VFR aircraft are also limited during CENRAP operations because of the additional workload required to provide services to IFR aircraft.

b. Surveillance radars scan through 360 degrees of azimuth and present target information on a radar display located in a tower or center. This information is used independently or in conjunction with other navigational aids in the control of air traffic.

1-2-4. Precision Approach Radar (PAR)

a. PAR is designed to be used as a landing aid, rather than an aid for sequencing and spacing aircraft. PAR equipment may be used as a primary landing aid, or it may be used to monitor other types of approaches. It is designed to display range, azimuth and elevation information.

b. Two antennas are used in the PAR array, one scanning a vertical plane, and the other scanning horizontally. Since the range is limited to 10 miles, azimuth to 20 degrees, and elevation to 7 degrees, only the final approach area is covered. Each scope is divided into two parts. The upper half presents altitude and distance information, and the lower half presents azimuth and distance.

 

NOTE-
A number of radar terminals do not have ARTS equipment. Those facilities and certain ARTCC's outside the contiguous U.S. would have radar displays similar to the lower right hand subset. ARTS facilities and NAS Stage A ARTCC's, when operating in the nonautomation mode, would also have similar displays and certain services based on automation may not be available.

EXAMPLE-

FIG 1-2-3
NAS Stage A Controllers View Plan Display
This figure illustrates the controller's radar scope (PVD) when operating in the full automation (RDP) mode, which is normally 20 hours per day.

(When not in automation mode, the display is similar to the broadband mode shown in the ARTS III radar scope figure. Certain ARTCC's outside the contiguous U.S. also operate in "broadband" mode.)

EXAMPLE-

Target symbols:

	1.	Uncorrelated primary radar target [o] [+]
	2.	Correlated primary radar target
		*See note below.
	3.	Uncorrelated beacon target [ / ]
	4.	Correlated beacon target [ \ ]
	5.	Identing beacon target
*Note: in Number 2 correlated means the association of radar data with the computer projected track of an identified aircraft.
Position symbols:
	6.	Free track (no flight plan tracking)
	7.	Flat track (flight plan tracking)
	8.	Coast (beacon target lost) [#]
	9.	Present position hold
Data block information:
	10.	Aircraft ident
*See note below.
	11.	Assigned altitude FL 280, Mode C altitude same or within 200' of assigned altitude.
*See note below.
	12.	Computer ID #191, handoff is to sector 33 (0-33 would mean handoff accepted)
*See note below.
	13.	Assigned altitude 17,000', aircraft is climbing, Mode C readout was 14,300 when last beacon interrogation was received.
	14.	Leader line connecting target symbol and data block.
	15.	Track velocity and direction vector line (projected ahead of target)
	16.	Assigned altitude 7,000, aircraft is descending, last Mode C readout (or last reported altitude) was 100' above FL 230
	17.	Transponder code shows in full data block only when different than assigned code
	18.	Aircraft is 300' above assigned altitude
	19.	Reported altitude (no Mode C readout) same as assigned. (An "n" would indicate no reported altitude.)
	20.	Transponder set on emergency Code 7700 (EMRG flashes to attract attention)
	21.	Transponder Code 1200 (VFR) with no Mode C
	22.	Code 1200 (VFR) with Mode C and last altitude readout
	23.	Transponder set on radio failure Code 7600 (RDOF flashes)
	24.	Computer ID #228, CST indicates target is in coast status
	25.	Assigned altitude FL 290, transponder code (these two items constitute a "limited data block")
		*Note: numbers 10, 11, and 12 constitute a "full data block"
Other symbols:
	26.	Navigational aid
	27.	Airway or jet route
	28.	Outline of weather returns based on primary radar. "H" represents areas of high density precipitation which might be thunderstorms. Radial lines indicated lower density precipitation.
	29.	Obstruction
	30.	Airports