Chapter 7. Safety of Flight

Section 1. Meteorology

7-1-1. National Weather Service Aviation Products

a. Weather service to aviation is a joint effort of the National Weather Service (NWS), the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the military weather services, and other aviation oriented groups and individuals. The NWS maintains an extensive surface, upper air, and radar weather observing program; a nationwide aviation weather forecasting service; and provides limited pilot briefing service (interpretational). The majority of pilot weather briefings are provided by FAA personnel at Flight Service Stations (AFSS's/FSS's). Aviation routine weather reports (METAR) are taken manually by NWS, FAA, contractors, or supplemental observers. METAR reports are also provided by Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS) and Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS).

REFERENCE-
AIM, Weather Observing Programs, Paragraph 7-1-11.

b. Aerodrome forecasts are prepared by approximately 100 Weather Forecast Offices (WFO's). These offices prepare and distribute approximately 525 aerodrome forecasts 4 times daily for specific airports in the 50 States, Puerto Rico, the Caribbean and Pacific Islands. These forecasts are valid for 24 hours and amended as required. WFO's prepare over 300 route forecasts and 39 synopses for Transcribed Weather Broadcasts (TWEB), and briefing purposes. The route forecasts are issued 3 times daily, each forecast is valid for 15 hours. A centralized aviation forecast program originating from the Aviation Weather Center (AWC) in Kansas City was implemented in October 1995. In the conterminous U.S., all Inflight Advisories Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMET's), Convective SIGMET's, and Airmen's Meteorological Information (AIRMET's) and all Area Forecasts (FA's) (6 areas) are now issued by AWC. FA's are prepared 3 times a day in the conterminous U.S. and Alaska (4 times in Hawaii), and amended as required. Inflight Advisories are issued only when conditions warrant. Winds aloft forecasts are provided for 176 locations in the 48 contiguous States and 21 locations in Alaska for flight planning purposes. (Winds aloft forecasts for Hawaii are prepared locally.) All the aviation weather forecasts are given wide distribution through the Weather Message Switching Center Replacement (WMSCR) in Atlanta, Georgia, and Salt Lake City, Utah.

REFERENCE-
AIM, Inflight Weather Advisories, Paragraph 7-1-5.

c. Weather element values may be expressed by using different measurement systems depending on several factors, such as whether the weather products will be used by the general public, aviation interests, international services, or a combination of these users. FIG 7-1-1 provides conversion tables for the most used weather elements that will be encountered by pilots.

7-1-2. FAA Weather Services

a. The FAA maintains a nationwide network of Automated Flight Service Stations (AFSS's/FSS's) to serve the weather needs of pilots. In addition, NWS meteorologists are assigned to most ARTCC's as part of the Center Weather Service Unit (CWSU). They provide Center Weather Advisories (CWA's) and gather weather information to support the needs of the FAA and other users of the system.

b. The primary source of preflight weather briefings is an individual briefing obtained from a briefer at the AFSS/FSS. These briefings, which are tailored to your specific flight, are available 24 hours a day through the use of the toll free number (1-800-WX BRIEF). Numbers for these services can be found in the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) under "FAA and NWS Telephone Numbers" section. They may also be listed in the U.S. Government section of your local telephone directory under Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, or Department of Commerce, National Weather Service. NWS pilot weather briefers do not provide aeronautical information (NOTAM's, flow control advisories, etc.) nor do they accept flight plans.

REFERENCE-
AIM, Preflight Briefing, Paragraph 7-1-3, explains the types of preflight briefings available and the information contained in each.

FIG 7-1-1

Weather Elements Conversion Tables

c. Other sources of weather information are as follows:

1. Telephone Information Briefing Service (TIBS) (AFSS), a small number of Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) locations, and telephone access to the TWEB (TEL-TWEB) provide continuously updated recorded weather information for short or local flights. Separate paragraphs in this section give additional information regarding these services.

REFERENCE-
AIM, Telephone Information Briefing Service (TIBS), Paragraph 7-1-7.
AIM, Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB), Paragraph 7-1-8.

2. Weather and aeronautical information are also available from numerous private industry sources on an individual or contract pay basis. Information on how to obtain this service should be available from local pilot organizations.

3. The Direct User Access Terminal System (DUATS) can be accessed by pilots with a current medical certificate toll-free in the 48 contiguous States via personal computer. Pilots can receive alpha-numeric preflight weather data and file domestic VFR and IFR flight plans. The following are the contract DUATS vendors:

GTE Federal Systems
15000 Conference Center Drive
Chantilly, VA 22021-3808
Computer Modem Access Number: For filing flight plans and obtaining weather briefings: (800) 767-9989
For customer service: (800) 345-3828

Data Transformation Corporation
108-D Greentree Road
Turnersville, NJ 08012
Computer Modem Access Number: For filing flight plans and obtaining weather briefings: (800) 245-3828
For customer service: (800) 243-3828

d. Inflight weather information is available from any FSS within radio range. The common frequency for all AFSS's is 122.2. Discrete frequencies for individual stations are listed in the A/FD.

1. Information on In-Flight Weather broadcasts.

REFERENCE-
AIM, Inflight Weather Broadcasts, Paragraph 7-1-9.

2. En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS) is provided to serve the nonroutine weather needs of pilots in flight.

REFERENCE-
AIM, En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS), Paragraph 7-1-4, gives details on this service.

7-1-3. Preflight Briefing

a. Flight Service Stations (AFSS's/FSS's) are the primary source for obtaining preflight briefings and inflight weather information. Flight Service Specialists are qualified and certificated by the NWS as Pilot Weather Briefers. They are not authorized to make original forecasts, but are authorized to translate and interpret available forecasts and reports directly into terms describing the weather conditions which you can expect along your flight route and at your destination. Available aviation weather reports, forecasts and aviation weather charts are displayed at each AFSS/FSS, for pilot use. Pilots should feel free to use these self briefing displays where available, or to ask for a briefing or assistance from the specialist on duty. Three basic types of preflight briefings are available to serve your specific needs. These are: Standard Briefing, Abbreviated Briefing, and Outlook Briefing. You should specify to the briefer the type of briefing you want, along with your appropriate background information. This will enable the briefer to tailor the information to your intended flight. The following paragraphs describe the types of briefings available and the information provided in each briefing.

REFERENCE-
AIM, Preflight Preparation, Paragraph 5-1-1, for items that are required.

b. Standard Briefing. You should request a Standard Briefing any time you are planning a flight and you have not received a previous briefing or have not received preliminary information through mass dissemination media; e.g., TIBS, TWEB, etc. International data may be inaccurate or incomplete. If you are planning a flight outside of U.S. controlled airspace, the briefer will advise you to check data as soon as practical after entering foreign airspace, unless you advise that you have the international cautionary advisory. The briefer will automatically provide the following information in the sequence listed, except as noted, when it is applicable to your proposed flight.

1. Adverse Conditions. Significant meteorological and aeronautical information that might influence the pilot to alter the proposed flight; e.g., hazardous weather conditions, airport closures, air traffic delays, etc.

2. VFR Flight Not Recommended. When VFR flight is proposed and sky conditions or visibilities are present or forecast, surface or aloft, that in the briefer's judgment would make flight under visual flight rules doubtful, the briefer will describe the conditions, affected locations, and use the phrase "VFR flight not recommended." This recommendation is advisory in nature. The final decision as to whether the flight can be conducted safely rests solely with the pilot.

3. Synopsis. A brief statement describing the type, location and movement of weather systems and/or air masses which might affect the proposed flight.

NOTE-
These first 3 elements of a briefing may be combined in any order when the briefer believes it will help to more clearly describe conditions.

4. Current Conditions. Reported weather conditions applicable to the flight will be summarized from all available sources; e.g., METAR's/SPECI's, PIREP's, RAREP's. This element will be omitted if the proposed time of departure is beyond 2 hours, unless the information is specifically requested by the pilot.

5. En Route Forecast. Forecast en route conditions for the proposed route are summarized in logical order; i.e., departure/climbout, en route, and descent. (Heights are MSL, unless the contractions "AGL" or "CIG" are denoted indicating that heights are above ground.)

6. Destination Forecast. The destination forecast for the planned ETA. Any significant changes within 1 hour before and after the planned arrival are included.

7. Winds Aloft. Forecast winds aloft will be provided using degrees of the compass. The briefer will interpolate wind directions and speeds between levels and stations as necessary to provide expected conditions at planned altitudes. (Heights are MSL.) Temperature information will be provided on request.

8. Notices to Airmen (NOTAM's).

(a) Available NOTAM (D) information pertinent to the proposed flight.

(b) NOTAM (L) information pertinent to the departure and/or local area, if available, and pertinent FDC NOTAM's within approximately 400 miles of the FSS providing the briefing. AFSS facilities will provide FDC NOTAM's for the entire route of flight.

NOTE-
NOTAM information may be combined with current conditions when the briefer believes it is logical to do so.

NOTE-
NOTAM (D) information and FDC NOTAM's which have been published in the Notices to Airmen Publication are not included in pilot briefings unless a review of this publication is specifically requested by the pilot. For complete flight information you are urged to review the printed NOTAM's in the Notices to Airmen Publication and the A/FD in addition to obtaining a briefing.

9. ATC Delays. Any known ATC delays and flow control advisories which might affect the proposed flight.

10. Pilots may obtain the following from AFSS/FSS briefers upon request:

(a) Information on Military Training Routes (MTR's) and Military Operations Area (MOA's) activity within the flight plan area and a 100 NM extension around the flight plan area.

NOTE-
Pilots are encouraged to request updated information from en route AFSS's.

(b) A review of the Notices to Airmen Publication for pertinent NOTAM's and Special Notices.

(c) Approximate density altitude data.

(d) Information regarding such items as air traffic services and rules, customs/immigration procedures, ADIZ rules, search and rescue, etc.

(e) LORAN-C NOTAM's, available military NOTAM's, and runway friction measurement value NOTAM's.

(f) GPS RAIM availability for 1 hour before to 1 hour after ETA or a time specified by the pilot.

(g) Other assistance as required.

c. Abbreviated Briefing. Request an Abbreviated Briefing when you need information to supplement mass disseminated data, update a previous briefing, or when you need only one or two specific items. Provide the briefer with appropriate background information, the time you received the previous information, and/or the specific items needed. You should indicate the source of the information already received so that the briefer can limit the briefing to the information that you have not received, and/or appreciable changes in meteorological/aeronautical conditions since your previous briefing. To the extent possible, the briefer will provide the information in the sequence shown for a Standard Briefing. If you request only one or two specific items, the briefer will advise you if adverse conditions are present or forecast. (Adverse conditions contain both meteorological and/or aeronautical information.) Details on these conditions will be provided at your request. International data may be inaccurate or incomplete. If you are planning a flight outside of U.S. controlled airspace, the briefer will advise you to check data as soon as practical after entering foreign airspace, unless you advise that you have the international cautionary advisory.

d. Outlook Briefing. You should request an Outlook Briefing whenever your proposed time of departure is six or more hours from the time of the briefing. The briefer will provide available forecast data applicable to the proposed flight. This type of briefing is provided for planning purposes only. You should obtain a Standard or Abbreviated Briefing prior to departure in order to obtain such items as adverse conditions, current conditions, updated forecasts, winds aloft and NOTAM's, etc.

e. When filing a flight plan only, you will be asked if you require the latest information on adverse conditions pertinent to the route of flight.

f. Inflight Briefing. You are encouraged to obtain your preflight briefing by telephone or in person before departure. In those cases where you need to obtain a preflight briefing or an update to a previous briefing by radio, you should contact the nearest AFSS/FSS to obtain this information. After communications have been established, advise the specialist of the type briefing you require and provide appropriate background information. You will be provided information as specified in the above paragraphs, depending on the type briefing requested. In addition, the specialist will recommend shifting to the Flight Watch frequency when conditions along the intended route indicate that it would be advantageous to do so.

g. Following any briefing, feel free to ask for any information that you or the briefer may have missed or are not understood. This way, the briefer is able to present the information in a logical sequence, and lessens the chance of important items being overlooked.

7-1-4. En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS)

a. EFAS is a service specifically designed to provide en route aircraft with timely and meaningful weather advisories pertinent to the type of flight intended, route of flight, and altitude. In conjunction with this service, EFAS is also a central collection and distribution point for pilot reported weather information. EFAS is provided by specially trained specialists in selected AFSS's controlling multiple Remote Communications Outlets covering a large geographical area and is normally available throughout the conterminous U.S. and Puerto Rico from 6 a.m. to 10 p.m. EFAS provides communications capabilities for aircraft flying at 5,000 feet above ground level to 17,500 feet MSL on a common frequency of 122.0 MHz. Discrete EFAS frequencies have been established to ensure communications coverage from 18,000 through 45,000 MSL serving in each specific ARTCC area. These discrete frequencies may be used below 18,000 feet when coverage permits reliable communication.

NOTE-
When an EFAS outlet is located in a time zone different from the zone in which the flight watch control station is located, the availability of service may be plus or minus one hour from the normal operating hours.

b. Contact flight watch by using the name of the ARTCC facility identification serving the area of your location, followed by your aircraft identification, and the name of the nearest VOR to your position. The specialist needs to know this approximate location to select the most appropriate transmitter/receiver outlet for communications coverage.

EXAMPLE-
Cleveland Flight Watch, Cessna One Two Three Four Kilo, Mansfield V-O-R, over.

c. Charts depicting the location of the flight watch control stations (parent facility) and the outlets they use are contained in the A/FD. If you do not know in which flight watch area you are flying, initiate contact by using the words "Flight Watch," your aircraft identification, and the name of the nearest VOR. The facility will respond using the name of the flight watch facility.

EXAMPLE-
Flight Watch, Cessna One Two Three Four Kilo, Mansfield V-O-R, over.

d. AFSS's that provide En Route Flight Advisory Service are listed regionally in the A/FD's.

e. EFAS is not intended to be used for filing or closing flight plans, position reporting, getting complete preflight briefings, or obtaining random weather reports and forecasts. En route flight advisories are tailored to the phase of flight that begins after climb-out and ends with descent to land. Immediate destination weather and terminal aerodrome forecasts will be provided on request. Pilots requesting information not within the scope of flight watch will be advised of the appropriate AFSS/FSS frequency to obtain the information. Pilot participation is essential to the success of EFAS by providing a continuous exchange of information on weather, winds, turbulence, flight visibility, icing, etc., between pilots and flight watch specialists. Pilots are encouraged to report good weather as well as bad, and to confirm expected conditions as well as unexpected to EFAS facilities.

7-1-5. Inflight Weather Advisories

a. The NWS issues inflight weather advisories designated as Severe Weather Forecast Alerts (AWW's), Convective SIGMET's (WST's), SIGMET's (WS's), Center Weather Advisories (CWA's), and AIRMET's (WA's). Inflight advisories serve to notify en route pilots of the possibility of encountering hazardous flying conditions which may not have been forecast at the time of the preflight briefing. Whether or not the condition described is potentially hazardous to a particular flight is for the pilot and/or aircraft dispatcher in a 14 CFR Part 121 operation to evaluate on the basis of experience and the operational limits of the aircraft. Inflight weather advisories in the contiguous U.S. are described and plotted primarily using high altitude VOR's as reference points. In Alaska and Hawaii, advisories are described and plotted using either geographic references or latitude/longitude coordinates.

b. Severe Weather Forecast Alerts (AWW's) are preliminary messages issued in order to alert users that a Severe Weather Bulletin (WW) is being issued. These messages define areas of possible severe thunderstorms or tornado activity. The messages are unscheduled and issued as required by the Aviation Weather Center at Kansas City, Missouri.

1. Each AWW is numbered sequentially beginning January 1 of each year.

EXAMPLE-
MKC AWW 161755
WW 279 SEVERE TSTM NY PA NJ
161830Z-170000Z
AXIS..70 STATUTE MILES EITHER SIDE OF LINE..10W KMSS TO 20E KABE..AVIATION COORDS..60NM EITHER SIDE/60NW KSLK - 35W KEWR..HAIL SURFACE AND ALOFT..2 INCHES. SURFACE WIND GUSTS..65 KNOTS. MAX TOPS TO 540. MEAN WIND VECTOR 19020.
REPLACES WW 278..OH PA NY

2. Status reports are issued as needed on Severe Weather Watch Bulletins to show progress of storms and to delineate areas no longer under the threat of severe storm activity. Cancellation bulletins are issued when it becomes evident that no severe weather will develop or that storms have subsided and are no longer severe.

c. Convective SIGMET's (WST's) in the Conterminous U.S.: WST's concern only thunderstorms and related phenomena (tornadoes, heavy precipitation, hail, and high surface winds) over the conterminous U.S. and imply the associated occurrence of turbulence, icing, and convective low level wind shear. Individual WST's for each day are numbered sequentially (00-1-99), beginning at 00Z. The affected geographic area is contained in the number; i.e., the first WST issued each day in the eastern U.S. is Convective SIGMET 1E, the second is Convective SIGMET 2E, and so forth. WST's are issued on a scheduled basis, hourly at 55 minutes past the hour (H+55), and are valid for two hours or until superseded by the next hourly update. WST's are issued for any of the following phenomena:

1. Severe thunderstorm due to:

(a) Surface winds greater than or equal to 50 knots.

(b) Hail at the surface greater than or equal to ³/₄ inches in diameter.

(c) Tornadoes.

2. Embedded thunderstorms.

3. A line of thunderstorms.

4. Thunderstorms greater than or equal to VIP level 4 affecting 40% or more of an area at least 3,000 square miles.

REFERENCE-
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term- Radar Weather Echo Intensity Levels.

NOTE-
Since thunderstorms are the reason for issuing the WST, severe or greater turbulence, severe icing, and low-level wind shear (gust fronts, downbursts, microbursts, etc.) are implied and will not be specified in the advisory.

d. Convective SIGMET Bulletins.

1. Three Convective SIGMET bulletins, each covering a specified geographic area, are issued. These areas are the Eastern (E), Central (C), and Western (W) U.S. The boundaries that separate the Eastern from the Central and the Central from the Western U.S. are 87 and 107 degrees West, respectively. These bulletins are issued on a scheduled basis, hourly at 55 minutes past the hour (H+55), and as special bulletins on an unscheduled basis.

2. Each of the Convective SIGMET bulletins will be:

(a) Made up of one or more individually numbered Convective SIGMET's,

(b) Valid for two hours or until superseded by the next hourly issuance.

(c) The text of the bulletin consists of either an observation and a forecast or just a forecast.

3. On an hourly basis, an outlook is made for each of the three Convective SIGMET regions. The outlook for a particular region is appended to the Convective SIGMET bulletin for the same region. The convective outlook is also appended to special Convective SIGMET's. The outlook is reviewed each hour and revised when necessary. The outlook is a forecast and meteorological discussion for thunderstorm systems that are expected to require Convective SIGMET issuances during a time period 2-6 hours into the future. Furthermore, an outlook will always be made for each of the three regions, even if it is a negative statement.

e. SIGMET's (WS's) within the conterminous U.S. are issued by the Aviation Weather Center (AWC) when the following phenomena occur or are expected to occur:

1. Severe or extreme turbulence or clear air turbulence (CAT) not associated with thunderstorms.

2. Severe icing not associated with thunderstorms.

3. Duststorms, sandstorms, or volcanic ash lowering surface or inflight visibilities to below three miles.

4. Volcanic eruption.

f. Volcanic eruption SIGMET's are identified by an alphanumeric designator which consists of an alphabetic identifier and issuance number. The first time an advisory is issued for a phenomenon associated with a particular weather system, it will be given the next alphabetic designator in the series and will be numbered as the first for that designator. Subsequent advisories will retain the same alphabetic designator until the phenomenon ends. In the conterminous U.S., this means that a phenomenon that is assigned an alphabetic designator in one area will retain that designator as it moves within the area or into one or more other areas. Issuances for the same phenomenon will be sequentially numbered, using the same alphabetic designator until the phenomenon no longer exists. Alphabetic designators NOVEMBER through YANKEE, except SIERRA and TANGO are only used for SIGMET's, while designators SIERRA, TANGO and ZULU are used for AIRMET's.

g. Center Weather Advisories (CWA's).

1. CWA's are unscheduled inflight, flow control, air traffic, and air crew advisory. By nature of its short lead time, the CWA is not a flight planning product. It is generally a Nowcast for conditions beginning within the next two hours. CWA's will be issued:

(a) As a supplement to an existing SIGMET, Convective SIGMET or AIRMET.

(b) When an Inflight Advisory has not been issued but observed or expected weather conditions meet SIGMET/AIRMET criteria based on current pilot reports and reinforced by other sources of information about existing meteorological conditions.

(c) When observed or developing weather conditions do not meet SIGMET, Convective SIGMET, or AIRMET criteria; e.g., in terms of intensity or area coverage, but current pilot reports or other weather information sources indicate that existing or anticipated meteorological phenomena will adversely affect the safe flow of air traffic within the ARTCC area of responsibility.

2. The following example is a CWA issued from the Kansas City, Missouri, ARTCC. The "3" after ZKC in the first line denotes this CWA has been issued for the third weather phenomena to occur for the day. The "301" in the second line denotes the phenomena number again (3) and the issuance number (01) for this phenomena. The CWA was issued at 2140Z and is valid until 2340Z.

EXAMPLE-
ZKC3 CWA 032140
ZKC CWA 301 VALID UNTIL 032340
ISOLD SVR TSTM over KCOU MOVG SWWD 10 KTS ETC.

h. AIRMET's (WA's) may be of significance to any pilot or aircraft operator and are issued for all domestic airspace. They are of particular concern to operators and pilots of aircraft sensitive to the phenomena described and to pilots without instrument ratings and are issued by the AWC for the following weather phenomena which are potentially hazardous to aircraft:

1. Moderate icing.

2. Moderate turbulence.

3. Sustained winds of 30 knots or more at the surface.

4. Widespread area of ceilings less than 1,000 feet and/or visibility less than three miles.

5. Extensive mountain obscurement.

i. AIRMET's are issued on a scheduled basis every six hours, with unscheduled amendments issued as required. AIRMET's have fixed alphanumeric designator with ZULU for icing and freezing level data, TANGO for turbulence, strong surface winds, and wind shear, and SIERRA for instrument flight rules and mountain obscuration.

7-1-6. Categorical Outlooks

a. Categorical outlook terms, describing general ceiling and visibility conditions for advanced planning purposes are used only in area forecasts and are defined as follows:

1. LIFR (Low IFR). Ceiling less than 500 feet and/or visibility less than 1 mile.

2. IFR. Ceiling 500 to less than 1,000 feet and/or visibility 1 to less than 3 miles.

3. MVFR (Marginal VFR). Ceiling 1,000 to 3,000 feet and/or visibility 3 to 5 miles inclusive.

4. VFR. Ceiling greater than 3,000 feet and visibility greater than 5 miles; includes sky clear.

b. The cause of LIFR, IFR, or MVFR is indicated by either ceiling or visibility restrictions or both. The contraction "CIG" and/or weather and obstruction to vision symbols are used. If winds or gusts of 25 knots or greater are forecast for the outlook period, the word "WIND" is also included for all categories including VFR.

EXAMPLE-
1. LIFR CIG-low IFR due to low ceiling.
2. IFR FG-IFR due to visibility restricted by fog.
3. MVFR CIG HZ FU-marginal VFR due to both ceiling and visibility restricted by haze and smoke.
4. IFR CIG RA WIND-IFR due to both low ceiling and visibility restricted by rain; wind expected to be 25 knots or greater.

7-1-7. Telephone Information Briefing Service (TIBS)

a. TIBS, provided by automated flight service stations (AFSS's) is a continuous recording of meteorological and aeronautical information, available by telephone. Each AFSS provides at least four route and/or area briefings. In addition, airspace procedures and special announcements (if applicable) concerning aviation interests may also be available. Depending on user demand, other items may be provided; i.e., METAR observations, terminal aerodrome forecasts, wind/temperatures aloft forecasts, etc.

b. TIBS is not intended to substitute for specialist-provided preflight briefings. It is, however, recommended for use as a preliminary briefing, and often will be valuable in helping you to make a "go or no go" decision.

c. TIBS is provided by Automated Flight Service Stations (AFSS's) and provides continuous telephone recordings of meteorological and/or aeronautical information. Specifically, TIBS provides area and/or route briefings, airspace procedures, and special announcements (if applicable) concerning aviation interests.

d. Depending on user demand, other items may be provided; i.e., surface observations, terminal forecasts, winds/temperatures aloft forecasts, etc. A TOUCH- TONETM telephone is necessary to fully utilize the TIBS program.

e. Pilots are encouraged to avail themselves of this service. TIBS locations are found at AFSS sites and can be accessed by use of 1-800-WX BRIEF toll free number.

7-1-8. Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB)

Equipment is provided at three AFSS/FSS locations in the lower 48 States (Arcata, California; Bridgeport, CT; Princeton, Minnesota) and all of Alaska, by which meteorological and aeronautical data are recorded on tapes and broadcast continuously over selected low-frequency (190-535 kHz) navigational aids (L/MF ranges or H facilities) and/or VOR's. Broadcasts are made from a series of individual tape recordings, and changes, as they occur, are transcribed onto the tapes. The information provided varies depending on the type equipment available. Generally, the broadcast contains route-oriented data with specially prepared NWS forecasts, Inflight Advisories, and winds aloft plus preselected current information, such as weather reports (METAR/SPECI), NOTAM's, and special notices. In some locations, the information is broadcast over the local VOR only and is limited to such items as the hourly weather for the parent station and up to 5 immediately adjacent stations, local NOTAM information, aerodrome forecast (TAF) for the parent station, adverse conditions extracted from Inflight Advisories, and other potentially hazardous conditions. At selected locations, telephone access to the TWEB has been provided (TEL-TWEB). Telephone numbers for this service are found in the FSS and National Weather Service Telephone Numbers section of the A/FD. These broadcasts are made available primarily for preflight and inflight planning, and as such, should not be considered as a substitute for specialist-provided preflight briefings.

7-1-9. Inflight Weather Broadcasts

a. Weather Advisory Broadcasts. ARTCC's broadcast a Severe Weather Forecast Alert (AWW), Convective SIGMET, SIGMET, or CWA alert once on all frequencies, except emergency, when any part of the area described is within 150 miles of the airspace under their jurisdiction. These broadcasts contain SIGMET or CWA (identification) and a brief description of the weather activity and general area affected.

EXAMPLE-
1. Attention all aircraft, SIGMET Delta Three, from Myton to Tuba City to Milford, severe turbulence and severe clear icing below one zero thousand feet. Expected to continue beyond zero three zero zero zulu.
2. Attention all aircraft, convective SIGMET Two Seven Eastern. From the vicinity of Elmira to Phillipsburg. Scattered embedded thunderstorms moving east at one zero knots. A few intense level five cells, maximum tops four five zero.
3. Attention all aircraft, Kansas City Center weather advisory one zero three. Numerous reports of moderate to severe icing from eight to niner thousand feet in a three zero mile radius of St. Louis. Light or negative icing reported from four thousand to one two thousand feet remainder of Kansas City Center area.

NOTE-
Terminal control facilities have the option to limit the AWW, convective SIGMET, SIGMET, or CWA broadcast as follows: local control and approach control positions may opt to broadcast SIGMET or CWA alerts only when any part of the area described is within 50 miles of the airspace under their jurisdiction.

b. Hazardous InFlight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS). This is a continuous broadcast of inflight weather advisories including summarized AWW, SIGMET's, Convective SIGMET's, CWA's, AIRMET's, and urgent PIREP's. HIWAS has been adopted as a national program and will be implemented throughout the conterminous U.S. as resources permit. In those areas where HIWAS is commissioned, ARTCC, Terminal ATC, and AFSS/FSS facilities have discontinued the broadcast of inflight advisories as described in the preceding paragraph. HIWAS is an additional source of hazardous weather information which makes these data available on a continuous basis. It is not, however, a replacement for preflight or inflight briefings or real-time weather updates from Flight Watch (EFAS). As HIWAS is implemented in individual center areas, the commissioning will be advertised in the Notices to Airmen Publication.

1. Where HIWAS has been implemented, a HIWAS alert will be broadcast on all except emergency frequencies once upon receipt by ARTCC and terminal facilities, which will include an alert announcement, frequency instruction, number, and type of advisory updated; e.g., AWW, SIGMET, Convective SIGMET, or CWA.

EXAMPLE-
Attention all aircraft. Hazardous weather information (SIGMET, Convective SIGMET, AIRMET, Urgent Pilot Weather Report (UUA), or Center Weather Advisory (CWA), Number or Numbers) for (geographical area) available on HIWAS, Flight Watch, or Flight Service frequencies.

2. In HIWAS ARTCC areas, AFSS/FSS's will broadcast a HIWAS update announcement once on all except emergency frequencies upon completion of recording an update to the HIWAS broadcast. Included in the broadcast will be the type of advisory updated; e.g. AWW, SIGMET, Convective SIGMET, CWA, etc.

EXAMPLE-
Attention all aircraft. Hazardous weather information for (geographical area) available from Flight Watch or Flight Service.

3. HIWAS availability is shown on IFR Enroute Low Altitude Charts and VFR Sectional Charts. The symbol depiction is identified in the chart legend.

7-1-10. Flight Information Services Data Link (FISDL)

a. FISDL. Aeronautical weather and operational information may be displayed in the cockpit through the use of FISDL. FISDL systems are comprised of two basic types: broadcast systems and two-way systems. Broadcast system components include a terrestrial or pace-based transmitter, an aircraft receiver, and a cockpit display device. Two-way systems utilize transmitter/receivers at both the terrestrial or space-based site and the aircraft.

1. Broadcast FISDL allows the pilot to passively collect weather and operational data and to call up that data for review at the appropriate time. In addition to text weather products, such as METAR's and TAF's, graphical weather products, such as radar composite/mosaic images may be provided to the cockpit. Two-way FISDL services permit the pilot to make specific weather and operational information requests for cockpit display.

2. FISDL services are available from three types of service providers.

(a) Through vendors operating under a service agreement with the FAA using broadcast data link on VHF aeronautical spectrum (products and services are defined under subparagraph c).

(b) Through vendors operating under customer contract on aeronautical spectrum.

(c) Through vendors operating under customer contract on other than aeronautical spectrum.

3. FISDL is a method of disseminating aeronautical weather and operational data which augments pilot voice communication with Flight Service Stations (FSS's), other Air Traffic Control (ATC) facilities or Airline Operations Control Centers (AOCC's). FISDL does not replace pilot and controller/flight service specialist/aircraft dispatcher voice communication for critical weather or operational information interpretation. FISDL, however, can provide the background information which can abbreviate and greatly improve the usefulness of such communications. As such, FISDL serves to enhance pilot situational awareness and improve safety.

b. Operational Use of FISDL. Regardless of the type of FISDL system being used, either under FAA service agreement or by an independent provider, several factors must be considered when using FISDL.

1. Before using FISDL in flight operations, pilots and other flight crew members should become completely familiar with the operation of the FISDL system to be used, airborne equipment to be used, including system architecture, airborne system components, service volume and other limitations of the particular system, modes of operation and the indications of various system failures. Users should also be familiar with the content and format of the services available from the FISDL provider(s). Sources of information which may provide this guidance include manufacturer's manuals, training programs and reference guides.

2. FISDL does not serve as the sole source of aeronautical weather and operational information. ATC, FSS, and, if applicable, AOCC VHF/HF voice is the basic method of communicating aeronautical weather, special use airspace, NOTAM and other operational information to aircraft in flight. FISDL augments ATC/FSS/AOCC services, and, in some applications, offers the advantage of graphical data. By using FISDL for orientation, the usefulness of any information received from conventional voice sources may be greatly enhanced. FISDL may alert the pilot to specific areas of concern which will more accurately focus requests made to FSS or AOCC for inflight briefings or queries made to ATC.

3. The aeronautical environment is constantly changing; often these changes occur quickly, and without warning. It is important that critical decisions be based on the most timely and appropriate data available. Consequently, when differences exist between FISDL and information obtained by voice communication with ATC, FSS, and/or AOCC (if applicable), pilots are cautioned to use the most recent data from the most authoritative source.

4. FISDL products, such as ground-based radar precipitation maps, are not appropriate for use in tactical severe weather avoidance, such as negotiating a path through a weather hazard area (an area where a pilot cannot reliably divert around hazardous weather, such as a broken line of thunderstorms). FISDL supports strategic weather decision making such as route selection to avoid a weather hazard area in its entirety. The misuse of information beyond it's applicability may place the pilot and his/her aircraft in great jeopardy. In addition, FISDL should never be used in lieu of an individual pre-flight weather and flight planning briefing.

5. FISDL supports better pilot decision making by increasing situational awareness. The best decision making is based on using information from a variety of sources. In addition to FISDL, pilots should take advantage of other weather/NAS status sources, including, but not limited to, Flight Service Stations, Flight Watch, other air traffic control facilities, airline operation control centers, pilot reports, and their own personal observations.

c. FAA FISDL. The FAA's FISDL system provides flight crews of properly equipped aircraft with a cockpit display of certain aeronautical weather and flight operational information. This information is displayed using both text and graphic format. This system is scheduled for initial operational capability (IOC) in the first quarter of calendar year 2000. The system is operated by vendors under a service agreement with the FAA, using broadcast data link on aeronautical spectrum on four 25 KHz spaced frequencies from 136.425 through 136.500 MHz. FISDL is designed to provide coverage throughout the continental U.S. from 5,000 feet AGL to 17,500 feet MSL, except in those areas where this is unfeasible due to mountainous terrain. Aircraft operating near transmitter sites will receive useable FISDL signals at altitudes lower than 5000 feet AGL, including on the surface in some locations, depending on transmitter/aircraft line of sight geometry. Aircraft operating above 17,500 MSL may also receive useable FISDL signals under certain circumstances.

1. FAA FISDL provides, free of charge, the following basic products:

(a) Aviation Routine Weather Reports (METAR's).

(b) Special Aviation Reports (SPECI's).

(c) Terminal Area Forecasts (TAF's), and their amendments.

(d) Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMET's).

(e) Convective SIGMET's.

(f) Airman's Meteorological Information (AIRMET's).

(g) Pilot Reports (both urgent and routine) (PIREP's); and,

(h) Severe Weather Forecast Alerts (AWW's) issued by the FAA or NWS.

2. The format and coding of these products are described in Advisory Circular AC-00-45, Aviation Weather Services, and paragraph 7-1-28, Key to Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) and Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF).

3. Additional products, called Value-Added Products, are available from the vendors on a paid subscription basis. Details concerning the content, format, symbology and cost of these products may be obtained from the following vendors:

(a) BENDIX/KING WxSIGHT
Allied Signal, Inc.
One Technology Center
23500 West 105th Street
Olathe, KS 66061
(913) 712-2613
www.bendixking.com

(b) ARNAV Systems, Inc.
16923 Meridian East
P. O. Box 73730
Puyallup, WA 98373
(253) 848-6060
www.arnav.com

d. Non-FAA FISDL Systems. In addition to FAA FISDL, several commercial vendors provide customers with FISDL on both the aeronautical spectrum and other frequencies using a variety of data link protocols. In some cases, the vendors provide only the communications system which carries customer messages, such as the Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) used by many air carrier and other operators.

1. Operators using non-FAA FISDL for inflight weather and operational information should ensure that the products used conform to the FAA/NWS standards. Specifically, aviation weather information should meet the following criteria:

(a) The products should be either FAA/NWS accepted aviation weather reports or products, or based on FAA/NWS accepted aviation weather reports or products. If products are used which do not meet this criteria, they should be so identified. The operator must determine the applicability of such products to flight operations.

(b) In the case of a weather product which is the result of the application of a process which alters the form, function or content of the base FAA/NWS accepted weather product(s), that process, and any limitations to the application of the resultant product should be described in the vendor's user guidance material.

2. An example would be a NEXRAD radar composite/mosaic map, which has been modified by changing the scaling resolution. The methodology of assigning reflectivity values to the resultant image components should be described in the vendor's guidance material to ensure that the user can accurately interpret the displayed data.

3. To ensure airman compliance with Federal Aviation Regulations, National Airspace System (NAS) status products (such as NOTAM's, Special Use Airspace Status, etc.) and other government flight information should include verbatim transmissions of FAA products. If these products are modified, the modification process, and any limitations of the resultant product should be described in the vendor's user guidance.

7-1-11. Weather Observing Programs

a. Manual Observations. With only a few exceptions, these reports are from airport locations staffed by FAA or NWS personnel who manually observe, perform calculations, and enter these observations into the (WMSCR) communication system. The format and coding of these observations are contained in paragraph 7-1-28, Key to Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) and Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF).

b. Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS).

1. Automated weather reporting systems are increasingly being installed at airports. These systems consist of various sensors, a processor, a computer-generated voice subsystem, and a transmitter to broadcast local, minute-by-minute weather data directly to the pilot.

NOTE-
When the barometric pressure exceeds 31.00 inches Hg., see paragraph 7-2-2, Procedures, for the altimeter setting procedures.

2. The AWOS observations will include the prefix "AUTO" to indicate that the data are derived from an automated system. Some AWOS locations will be augmented by certified observers who will provide weather and obstruction to vision information in the remarks of the report when the reported visibility is less than 7 miles. These sites, along with the hours of augmentation, are to be published in the A/FD. Augmentation is identified in the observation as "OBSERVER WEATHER." The AWOS wind speed, direction and gusts, temperature, dew point, and altimeter setting are exactly the same as for manual observations. The AWOS will also report density altitude when it exceeds the field elevation by more than 1,000 feet. The reported visibility is derived from a sensor near the touchdown of the primary instrument runway. The visibility sensor output is converted to a visibility value using a 10-minute harmonic average. The reported sky condition/ceiling is derived from the ceilometer located next to the visibility sensor. The AWOS algorithm integrates the last 30 minutes of ceilometer data to derive cloud layers and heights. This output may also differ from the observer sky condition in that the AWOS is totally dependent upon the cloud advection over the sensor site.

3. These real-time systems are operationally classified into four basic levels:

(a) AWOS-A only reports altimeter setting,

(b) AWOS-l usually reports altimeter setting, wind data, temperature, dew point, and density altitude,

(c) AWOS-2 provides the information provided by AWOS-l plus visibility, and

(d) AWOS-3 provides the information provided by AWOS-2 plus cloud/ceiling data.

4. The information is transmitted over a discrete VHF radio frequency or the voice portion of a local NAVAID. AWOS transmissions on a discrete VHF radio frequency are engineered to be receivable to a maximum of 25 NM from the AWOS site and a maximum altitude of 10,000 feet AGL. At many locations, AWOS signals may be received on the surface of the airport, but local conditions may limit the maximum AWOS reception distance and/or altitude. The system transmits a 20 to 30 second weather message updated each minute. Pilots should monitor the designated frequency for the automated weather broadcast. A description of the broadcast is contained in subparagraph c. There is no two-way communication capability. Most AWOS sites also have a dial-up capability so that the minute-by-minute weather messages can be accessed via telephone.

5. AWOS information (system level, frequency, phone number, etc.) concerning specific locations is published, as the systems become operational, in the A/FD, and where applicable, on published Instrument Approach Procedures. Selected individual systems may be incorporated into nationwide data collection and dissemination networks in the future.

c. AWOS Broadcasts. Computer-generated voice is used in AWOS to automate the broadcast of the minute-by-minute weather observations. In addition, some systems are configured to permit the addition of an operator-generated voice message; e.g., weather remarks following the automated parameters. The phraseology used generally follows that used for other weather broadcasts. Following are explanations and examples of the exceptions.

1. Location and Time. The location/name and the phrase "AUTOMATED WEATHER OBSERVATION," followed by the time are announced.

(a) If the airport's specific location is included in the airport's name, the airport's name is announced.

EXAMPLE-
"Bremerton National Airport automated weather observation, one four five six zulu;"
"Ravenswood Jackson County Airport automated weather observation, one four five six zulu."

(b) If the airport's specific location is not included in the airport's name, the location is announced followed by the airport's name.

EXAMPLE-
"Sault Ste. Marie, Chippewa County International Airport automated weather observation;"
"Sandusky, Cowley Field automated weather observation."

(c) The word "TEST" is added following "OBSERVATION" when the system is not in commissioned status.

EXAMPLE-
"Bremerton National Airport automated weather observation test, one four five six zulu."

(d) The phrase "TEMPORARILY INOPERATIVE" is added when the system is inoperative.

EXAMPLE-
"Bremerton National Airport automated weather observing system temporarily inoperative."

2. Visibility.

(a) The lowest reportable visibility value in AWOS is "less than ¹/₄." It is announced as "VISIBILITY LESS THAN ONE QUARTER."

(b) A sensor for determining visibility is not included in some AWOS. In these systems, visibility is not announced. "VISIBILITY MISSING" is announced only if the system is configured with a visibility sensor and visibility information is not available.

3. Weather. In the future, some AWOS's are to be configured to determine the occurrence of precipitation. However, the type and intensity may not always be determined. In these systems, the word "PRECIPITATION" will be announced if precipitation is occurring, but the type and intensity are not determined.

4. Ceiling and Sky Cover.

(a) Ceiling is announced as either "CEILING" or "INDEFINITE CEILING." With the exception of indefinite ceilings, all automated ceiling heights are measured.

EXAMPLE-
"Bremerton National Airport automated weather observation, one four five six zulu. Ceiling two thousand overcast;"

"Bremerton National Airport automated weather observation, one four five six zulu. Indefinite ceiling two hundred, sky obscured."

(b) The word "Clear" is not used in AWOS due to limitations in the height ranges of the sensors. No clouds detected is announced as "NO CLOUDS BELOW XXX" or, in newer systems as "CLEAR BELOW XXX" (where XXX is the range limit of the sensor).

EXAMPLE-
"No clouds below one two thousand."
"Clear below one two thousand."

(c) A sensor for determining ceiling and sky cover is not included in some AWOS. In these systems, ceiling and sky cover are not announced. "SKY CONDITION MISSING" is announced only if the system is configured with a ceilometer and the ceiling and sky cover information is not available.

5. Remarks. If remarks are included in the observation, the word "REMARKS" is announced following the altimeter setting.

(a) Automated "Remarks."

(1) Density Altitude.

(2) Variable Visibility.

(3) Variable Wind Direction.

(b) Manual Input Remarks. Manual input remarks are prefaced with the phrase "OBSERVER WEATHER." As a general rule the manual remarks are limited to:

(1) Type and intensity of precipitation.

(2) Thunderstorms and direction; and

(3) Obstructions to vision when the visibility is 3 miles or less.

EXAMPLE-
"Remarks ... density altitude, two thousand five hundred ... visibility variable between one and two ... wind direction variable between two four zero and three one zero ...observed weather ... thunderstorm moderate rain showers and fog ... thunderstorm overhead."

(c) If an automated parameter is "missing" and no manual input for that parameter is available, the parameter is announced as "MISSING." For example, a report with the dew point "missing" and no manual input available, would be announced as follows:

EXAMPLE-
"Ceiling one thousand overcast ... visibility three ... precipitation ... temperature three zero, dew point missing ... wind calm ... altimeter three zero zero one."

(d) "REMARKS" are announced in the following order of priority:

(1) Automated "REMARKS."

[a] Density Altitude.

[b] Variable Visibility.

[c] Variable Wind Direction.

(2) Manual Input "REMARKS."

[a] Sky Condition.

[b] Visibility.

[c] Weather and Obstructions to Vision.

[d] Temperature.

[e] Dew Point.

[f] Wind; and

[g] Altimeter Setting.

EXAMPLE-
"Remarks ... density altitude, two thousand five hundred ... visibility variable between one and two ... wind direction variable between two four zero and three one zero ... observer ceiling estimated two thousand broken ... observer temperature two, dew point minus five."

d. Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS). The ASOS is the primary surface weather observing system of the U.S.. (See Key to Decode an ASOS (METAR) Observation: FIG 7-1-2 and FIG 7-1-3.) The program to install and operate up to 993 systems throughout the U.S. is a joint effort of the NWS, the FAA and the Department of Defense. ASOS is designed to support aviation operations and weather forecast activities. The ASOS will provide continuous minute-by-minute observations and perform the basic observing functions necessary to generate an aviation routine weather report (METAR) and other aviation weather information. The information may be transmitted over a discrete VHF radio frequency or the voice portion of a local NAVAID. ASOS transmissions on a discrete VHF radio frequency are engineered to be receivable to a maximum of 25 NM from the ASOS site and a maximum altitude of 10,000 feet AGL. At many locations, ASOS signals may be received on the surface of the airport, but local conditions may limit the maximum reception distance and/or altitude. While the automated system and the human may differ in their methods of data collection and interpretation, both produce an observation quite similar in form and content. For the "objective" elements such as pressure, ambient temperature, dew point temperature, wind, and precipitation accumulation, both the automated system and the observer use a fixed location and time-averaging technique. The quantitative differences between the observer and the automated observation of these elements are negligible. For the "subjective" elements, however, observers use a fixed time, spatial averaging technique to describe the visual elements (sky condition, visibility and present weather), while the automated systems use a fixed location, time averaging technique. Although this is a fundamental change, the manual and automated techniques yield remarkably similar results within the limits of their respective capabilities.

1. System Description.

(a) The ASOS at each airport location consists of four main components:

(1) Individual weather sensors.

(2) Data collection package(s) (DCP).

(3) The acquisition control unit.

(4) Peripherals and displays.

(b) The ASOS sensors perform the basic function of data acquisition. They continuously sample and measure the ambient environment, derive raw sensor data and make them available to the collocated DCP.

2. Every ASOS will contain the following basic set of sensors:

(a) Cloud height indicator (one or possibly three).

(b) Visibility sensor (one or possibly three).

(c) Precipitation identification sensor.

(d) Freezing rain sensor (at select sites).

(e) Pressure sensors (two sensors at small airports; three sensors at large airports).

(f) Ambient temperature/Dew point temperature sensor.

(g) Anemometer (wind direction and speed sensor).

(h) Rainfall accumulation sensor.

3. The ASOS data outlets include:

(a) Those necessary for on-site airport users.

(b) National communications networks.

(c) Computer-generated voice (available through FAA radio broadcast to pilots, and dial-in telephone line).

NOTE-
Wind direction broadcast over FAA radios is in reference to magnetic north.

4. An ASOS/AWOS report without human intervention will contain only that weather data capable of being reported automatically. The modifier for this METAR report is "AUTO." When an observer augments or backs-up an ASOS/AWOS site, the "AUTO" modifier disappears.

5. There are two types of automated stations, AO1 for automated weather reporting stations without a precipitation discriminator, and AO2 for automated stations with a precipitation discriminator. As appropriate, "AO1" and "AO2" shall appear in remarks. (A precipitation discriminator can determine the difference between liquid and frozen/freezing precipitation).

NOTE-
To decode an ASOS report, refer to FIG 7-1-2 and FIG 7-1-3.

REFERENCE-
A complete explanation of METAR terminology is located in AIM, Paragraph 7-1-28, Key to Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) and Aerodrome Forecasts.

 

FIG 7-1-2

Key to Decode an ASOS (METAR) Observation (Front)

FIG 7-1-3

Key to Decode an ASOS (METAR) Observation (Back)

e. TBL 7-1-1 contains a comparison of weather observing programs and the elements reported.

f. Service Standards. During 1995, a government/industry team worked to comprehensively reassess the requirements for surface observations at the nation's airports. That work resulted in agreement on a set of service standards, and the FAA and NWS ASOS sites to which the standards would apply. The term "Service Standards" refers to the level of detail in weather observation. The service standards consist of four different levels of service (A, B, C, and D) as described below. Specific observational elements included in each service level are listed in TBL 7-1-2.

1. Service Level D defines the minimum acceptable level of service. It is a completely automated service in which the ASOS observation will constitute the entire observation, i.e., no additional weather information is added by a human observer. This service is referred to as a stand alone D site.

2. Service Level C is a service in which the human observer, usually an air traffic controller, augments or adds information to the automated observation. Service Level C also includes backup of ASOS elements in the event of an ASOS malfunction or an unrepresentative ASOS report. In backup, the human observer inserts the correct or missing value for the automated ASOS elements. This service is provided by air traffic controllers under the Limited Aviation Weather Reporting Station (LAWRS) process, FSS and NWS observers, and, at selected sites, Non-Federal Observation Program observers.

Two categories of airports require detail beyond Service Level C in order to enhance air traffic control efficiency and increase system capacity. Services at these airports are typically provided by contract weather observers, NWS observers, and, at some locations, FSS observers.

3. Service Level B is a service in which weather observations consist of all elements provided under Service Level C, plus augmentation of additional data beyond the capability of the ASOS. This category of airports includes smaller hubs or special airports in other ways that have worse than average bad weather operations for thunderstorms and/or freezing/frozen precipitation, and/or that are remote airports.

4. Service Level A, the highest and most demanding category, includes all the data reported in Service Standard B, plus additional requirements as specified. Service Level A covers major aviation hubs and/or high volume traffic airports with average or worse weather.

TBL 7-1-1

TBL 7-1-2

7-1-12. Weather Radar Services

a. The National Weather Service operates a network of radar sites for detecting coverage, intensity, and movement of precipitation. The network is supplemented by FAA and DOD radar sites in the western sections of the country. Local warning radar sites augment the network by operating on an as needed basis to support warning and forecast programs.

b. Scheduled radar observations are taken hourly and transmitted in alpha-numeric format on weather telecommunications circuits for flight planning purposes. Under certain conditions, special radar reports are issued in addition to the hourly transmittals. Data contained in the reports are also collected by the National Center for Environmental Prediction and used to prepare national radar summary charts for dissemination on facsimile circuits.

c. A clear radar display (no echoes) does not mean that there is no significant weather within the coverage of the radar site. Clouds and fog are not detected by the radar. However, when echoes are present, turbulence can be implied by the intensity of the precipitation, and icing is implied by the presence of the precipitation at temperatures at or below zero degrees Celsius. Used in conjunction with other weather products, radar provides invaluable information for weather avoidance and flight planning.

FIG 7-1-4

NEXRAD Coverage

FIG 7-1-5

NEXRAD Coverage

FIG 7-1-6

NEXRAD Coverage

d. All En Route Flight Advisory Service facilities and AFSS's have equipment to directly access the radar displays from the individual weather radar sites. Specialists at these locations are trained to interpret the display for pilot briefing and inflight advisory services. The Center Weather Service Units located in ARTCC's also have access to weather radar displays and provide support to all air traffic facilities within their center's area.

e. Additional information on weather radar products and services can be found in AC 00-45, Aviation Weather Services.

REFERENCE-
Pilot/Controller Glossary, Radar Weather Echo Intensity Levels.
AIM, Thunderstorms, Paragraph 7-1-26.
A/FD, Charts, NWS Upper Air Observing Stations and Weather Network for the location of specific radar sites.

7-1-13. ATC Inflight Weather Avoidance Assistance

a. ATC Radar Weather Display.

1. Areas of radar weather clutter result from rain or moisture. Radars cannot detect turbulence. The determination of the intensity of the weather displayed is based on its precipitation density. Generally, the turbulence associated with a very heavy rate of rainfall will normally be more severe than any associated with a very light rainfall rate.

2. ARTCC's use Narrowband Radar which provides the controller with two distinct levels of weather intensity by assigning radar display symbols for specific precipitation densities measured by the narrowband system.

b. Weather Avoidance Assistance.

1. To the extent possible, controllers will issue pertinent information on weather or chaff areas and assist pilots in avoiding such areas when requested. Pilots should respond to a weather advisory by either acknowledging the advisory or by acknowledging the advisory and requesting an alternative course of action as follows:

(a) Request to deviate off course by stating the number of miles and the direction of the requested deviation. In this case, when the requested deviation is approved, navigation is at the pilot's prerogative, but must maintain the altitude assigned by ATC and to remain within the specified mileage of the original course.

(b) Request a new route to avoid the affected area.

(c) Request a change of altitude.

(d) Request radar vectors around the affected areas.

2. For obvious reasons of safety, an IFR pilot must not deviate from the course or altitude or flight level without a proper ATC clearance. When weather conditions encountered are so severe that an immediate deviation is determined to be necessary and time will not permit approval by ATC, the pilot's emergency authority may be exercised.

3. When the pilot requests clearance for a route deviation or for an ATC radar vector, the controller must evaluate the air traffic picture in the affected area, and coordinate with other controllers (if ATC jurisdictional boundaries may be crossed) before replying to the request.

4. It should be remembered that the controller's primary function is to provide safe separation between aircraft. Any additional service, such as weather avoidance assistance, can only be provided to the extent that it does not derogate the primary function. It's also worth noting that the separation workload is generally greater than normal when weather disrupts the usual flow of traffic. ATC radar limitations and frequency congestion may also be a factor in limiting the controller's capability to provide additional service.

5. It is very important, therefore, that the request for deviation or radar vector be forwarded to ATC as far in advance as possible. Delay in submitting it may delay or even preclude ATC approval or require that additional restrictions be placed on the clearance. Insofar as possible the following information should be furnished to ATC when requesting clearance to detour around weather activity:

(a) Proposed point where detour will commence.

(b) Proposed route and extent of detour (direction and distance).

(c) Point where original route will be resumed.

(d) Flight conditions (IFR or VFR).

(e) Any further deviation that may become necessary as the flight progresses.

(f) Advise if the aircraft is equipped with functioning airborne radar.

6. To a large degree, the assistance that might be rendered by ATC will depend upon the weather information available to controllers. Due to the extremely transitory nature of severe weather situations, the controller's weather information may be of only limited value if based on weather observed on radar only. Frequent updates by pilots giving specific information as to the area affected, altitudes, intensity and nature of the severe weather can be of considerable value. Such reports are relayed by radio or phone to other pilots and controllers and also receive widespread teletypewriter dissemination.

7. Obtaining IFR clearance or an ATC radar vector to circumnavigate severe weather can often be accommodated more readily in the en route areas away from terminals because there is usually less congestion and, therefore, offer greater freedom of action. In terminal areas, the problem is more acute because of traffic density, ATC coordination requirements, complex departure and arrival routes, adjacent airports, etc. As a consequence, controllers are less likely to be able to accommodate all requests for weather detours in a terminal area or be in a position to volunteer such routing to the pilot. Nevertheless, pilots should not hesitate to advise controllers of any observed severe weather and should specifically advise controllers if they desire circumnavigation of observed weather.

c. Procedures for Weather Deviations and Other Contingencies in Oceanic Controlled Airspace.

1. When the pilot initiates communications with ATC, rapid response may be obtained by stating "WEATHER DEVIATION REQUIRED" to indicate priority is desired on the frequency and for ATC response.

2. The pilot still retains the option of initiating the communications using the urgency call "PAN-PAN" 3 times to alert all listening parties of a special handling condition which will receive ATC priority for issuance of a clearance or assistance.

3. ATC will:

(a) Approve the deviation.

(b) Provide vertical separation and then approve the deviation; or

(c) If ATC is unable to establish vertical separation, ATC shall advise the pilot that standard separation cannot be applied; provide essential traffic information for all affected aircraft, to the extent practicable; and if possible, suggest a course of action. ATC may suggest that the pilot climb or descend to a contingency altitude (1,000 feet above or below that assigned if operating above FL 290; 500 feet above or below that assigned if operating at or below FL 290).

PHRASEOLOGY-
STANDARD SEPARATION NOT AVAILABLE, DEVIATE AT PILOT'S DISCRETION; SUGGEST CLIMB (or descent) TO (appropriate altitude); TRAFFIC (position and altitude); REPORT DEVIATION COMPLETE.

4. The pilot will follow the ATC advisory altitude when approximately 10 NM from track as well as execute the procedures detailed in paragraph 7-1-13c5.

5. If contact cannot be established or revised ATC clearance or advisory is not available and deviation from track is required, the pilot shall take the following actions:

(a) If possible, deviate away from an organized track or route system.

(b) Broadcast aircraft position and intentions on the frequency in use, as well as on frequency 121.5 MHz at suitable intervals stating: flight identification (operator call sign), flight level, track code or ATS route designator, and extent of deviation expected.

(c) Watch for conflicting traffic both visually and by reference to TCAS (if equipped).

(d) Turn on aircraft exterior lights.

(e) Deviations of less than 10 NM or operations within COMPOSITE (NOPAC and CEPAC) Airspace, should REMAIN at ASSIGNED altitude. Otherwise, when the aircraft is approximately 10 NM from track, initiate an altitude change based on the following criteria:

TBL 7-1-3

(f) When returning to track, be at assigned flight level when the aircraft is within approximately 10 NM of centerline.

(g) If contact was not established prior to deviating, continue to attempt to contact ATC to obtain a clearance. If contact was established, continue to keep ATC advised of intentions and obtain essential traffic information.

7-1-14. Runway Visual Range (RVR)

There are currently two configurations of RVR in the NAS commonly identified as Taskers and New Generation RVR. The Taskers are the existing configuration which uses transmissometer technology. The New Generation RVR's were deployed in November 1994 and use forward scatter technology. The New Generation RVR's are currently being deployed in the NAS to replace the existing Taskers.

a. RVR values are measured by transmissometers mounted on 14-foot towers along the runway. A full RVR system consists of:

1. Transmissometer projector and related items.

2. Transmissometer receiver (detector) and related items.

3. Analogue recorder.

4. Signal data converter and related items.

5. Remote digital or remote display programmer.

b. The transmissometer projector and receiver are mounted on towers 250 feet apart. A known intensity of light is emitted from the projector and is measured by the receiver. Any obscuring matter such as rain, snow, dust, fog, haze or smoke reduces the light intensity arriving at the receiver. The resultant intensity measurement is then converted to an RVR value by the signal data converter. These values are displayed by readout equipment in the associated air traffic facility and updated approximately once every minute for controller issuance to pilots.

c. The signal data converter receives information on the high intensity runway edge light setting in use (step 3, 4, or 5); transmission values from the transmissometer and the sensing of day or night conditions. From the three data sources, the system will compute appropriate RVR values.

d. An RVR transmissometer established on a 250 foot baseline provides digital readouts to a minimum of 600 feet, which are displayed in 200 foot increments to 3,000 feet and in 500 foot increments from 3,000 feet to a maximum value of 6,000 feet.

e. RVR values for Category IIIa operations extend down to 700 feet RVR; however, only 600 and 800 feet are reportable RVR increments. The 800 RVR reportable value covers a range of 701 feet to 900 feet and is therefore a valid minimum indication of Category IIIa operations.

f. Approach categories with the corresponding minimum RVR values. (See TBL 7-1-4.)

TBL 7-1-4

Approach Category/Minimum RVR Table

g. Ten minute maximum and minimum RVR values for the designated RVR runway are reported in the body of the aviation weather report when the prevailing visibility is less than one mile and/or the RVR is 6,000 feet or less. ATCT's report RVR when the prevailing visibility is 1 mile or less and/or the RVR is 6,000 feet or less.

h. Details on the requirements for the operational use of RVR are contained in FAA AC 97-1, "Runway Visual Range (RVR)." Pilots are responsible for compliance with minimums prescribed for their class of operations in the appropriate CFR's and/or operations specifications.

i. RVR values are also measured by forward scatter meters mounted on 14-foot frangible fiberglass poles. A full RVR system consists of:

1. Forward scatter meter with a transmitter, receiver and associated items.

2. A runway light intensity monitor (RLIM).

3. An ambient light sensor (ALS).

4. A data processor unit (DPU).

5. Controller display (CD).

j. The forward scatter meter is mounted on a 14-foot frangible pole. Infrared light is emitted from the transmitter and received by the receiver. Any obscuring matter such as rain, snow, dust, fog, haze or smoke increases the amount of scattered light reaching the receiver. The resulting measurement along with inputs from the runway light intensity monitor and the ambient light sensor are forwarded to the DPU which calculates the proper RVR value. The RVR values are displayed locally and remotely on controller displays.

k. The runway light intensity monitors both the runway edge and centerline light step settings (steps 1 through 5). Centerline light step settings are used for CAT IIIb operations. Edge Light step settings are used for CAT I, II, and IIIa operations.

l. New Generation RVR's can measure and display RVR values down to the lowest limits of Category IIIb operations (150 feet RVR). RVR values are displayed in 100 feet increments and are reported as follows:

1. 100-feet increments for products below 800 feet.

2. 200-feet increments for products between 800 feet and 3,000 feet.

3. 500-feet increments for products between 3,000 feet and 6,500 feet.

4. 25-meter increments for products below 150 meters.

5. 50-meter increments for products between 150 meters and 800 meters.

6. 100-meter increments for products between 800 meters and 1,200 meters.

7. 200-meter increments for products between 1,200 meters and 2,000 meters.

7-1-15. Reporting of Cloud Heights

a. Ceiling, by definition in the CFR's and as used in aviation weather reports and forecasts, is the height above ground (or water) level of the lowest layer of clouds or obscuring phenomenon that is reported as "broken," "overcast," or "obscuration," e.g., an aerodrome forecast (TAF) which reads "BKN030" refers to height above ground level. An area forecast which reads "BKN030" indicates that the height is above mean sea level.

REFERENCE-
AIM, Key to Routine Weather Report (METAR) and Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF), Paragraph 7-1-28, defines "broken," "overcast," and "obscuration."

b. Pilots usually report height values above MSL, since they determine heights by the altimeter. This is taken in account when disseminating and otherwise applying information received from pilots. ("Ceiling" heights are always above ground level.) In reports disseminated as PIREP's, height references are given the same as received from pilots, that is, above MSL.

c. In area forecasts or inflight advisories, ceilings are denoted by the contraction "CIG" when used with sky cover symbols as in "LWRG TO CIG OVC005," or the contraction "AGL" after, the forecast cloud height value. When the cloud base is given in height above MSL, it is so indicated by the contraction "MSL" or "ASL" following the height value. The heights of clouds tops, freezing level, icing, and turbulence are always given in heights above ASL or MSL.

7-1-16. Reporting Prevailing Visibility

a. Surface (horizontal) visibility is reported in METAR reports in terms of statute miles and increments thereof; e.g., ¹/₁₆, ¹/₈, ^3/₁₆, ¹/₄, ^5/₁₆, ^3/₈, ^1/₂, ^5/₈, ³/₄, ⁷/₈, 1, 1 ¹/₈, etc. (Visibility reported by an unaugmented automated site is reported differently than in a manual report, i.e., ASOS: 0, ¹/₁₆, ^1/₈, ¹/₄, ^1/₂, ³/₄, 1, 1 ¹/_4, 1 ^1/_2, 1 ^3/_4, 2, 2 ^1/_2, 3, 4, 5, etc., AWOS: M¹/₄, ¹/₄, ^1/₂, ³/₄, 1, 1 ¹/₄, 1 ^1/_2, 1 ^3/_4, 2, 2 ^1/_2, 3, 4, 5, etc.) Visibility is determined through the ability to see and identify preselected and prominent objects at a known distance from the usual point of observation. Visibilities which are determined to be less than 7 miles, identify the obscuring atmospheric condition; e.g., fog, haze, smoke, etc., or combinations thereof.

b. Prevailing visibility is the greatest visibility equalled or exceeded throughout at least one half of the horizon circle, not necessarily contiguous. Segments of the horizon circle which may have a significantly different visibility may be reported in the remarks section of the weather report; i.e., the southeastern quadrant of the horizon circle may be determined to be 2 miles in mist while the remaining quadrants are determined to be 3 miles in mist.

c. When the prevailing visibility at the usual point of observation, or at the tower level, is less than 4 miles, certificated tower personnel will take visibility observations in addition to those taken at the usual point of observation. The lower of these two values will be used as the prevailing visibility for aircraft operations.

7-1-17. Estimating Intensity of Rain and Ice Pellets

a. RAIN

1. Light. From scattered drops that, regardless of duration, do not completely wet an exposed surface up to a condition where individual drops are easily seen.

2. Moderate. Individual drops are not clearly identifiable; spray is observable just above pavements and other hard surfaces.

3. Heavy. Rain seemingly falls in sheets; individual drops are not identifiable; heavy spray to height of several inches is observed over hard surfaces.

b. ICE PELLETS

1. Light. Scattered pellets that do not completely cover an exposed surface regardless of duration. Visibility is not affected.

2. Moderate. Slow accumulation on ground. Visibility reduced by ice pellets to less than 7 statute miles.

3. Heavy. Rapid accumulation on ground. Visibility reduced by ice pellets to less than 3 statute miles.

7-1-18. Estimating Intensity of Snow or Drizzle (Based on Visibility)

a. Light. Visibility more than ¹/₂ statute mile.

b. Moderate. Visibility from more than ¹/₄ statute mile to ¹/₂ statute mile.

c. Heavy. Visibility ¹/₄ statute mile or less.

7-1-19. Pilot Weather Reports (PIREP's)

a. FAA air traffic facilities are required to solicit PIREP's when the following conditions are reported or forecast: ceilings at or below 5,000 feet; visibility at or below 5 miles (surface or aloft); thunderstorms and related phenomena; icing of light degree or greater; turbulence of moderate degree or greater; wind shear and reported or forecast volcanic ash clouds.

b. Pilots are urged to cooperate and promptly volunteer reports of these conditions and other atmospheric data such as: cloud bases, tops and layers; flight visibility; precipitation; visibility restrictions such as haze, smoke and dust; wind at altitude; and temperature aloft.

c. PIREP's should be given to the ground facility with which communications are established; i.e., EFAS, AFSS/FSS, ARTCC, or terminal ATC. One of the primary duties of EFAS facilities, radio call "FLIGHT WATCH," is to serve as a collection point for the exchange of PIREP's with en route aircraft.

d. If pilots are not able to make PIREP's by radio, reporting upon landing of the inflight conditions encountered to the nearest AFSS/FSS or Weather Forecast Office will be helpful. Some of the uses made of the reports are:

1. The ATCT uses the reports to expedite the flow of air traffic in the vicinity of the field and for hazardous weather avoidance procedures.

2. The AFSS/FSS uses the reports to brief other pilots, to provide inflight advisories, and weather avoidance information to en route aircraft.

3. The ARTCC uses the reports to expedite the flow of en route traffic, to determine most favorable altitudes, and to issue hazardous weather information within the center's area.

4. The NWS uses the reports to verify or amend conditions contained in aviation forecast and advisories. In some cases, pilot reports of hazardous conditions are the triggering mechanism for the issuance of advisories. They also use the reports for pilot weather briefings.

5. The NWS, other government organizations, the military, and private industry groups use PIREP's for research activities in the study of meteorological phenomena.

6. All air traffic facilities and the NWS forward the reports received from pilots into the weather distribution system to assure the information is made available to all pilots and other interested parties.

 

TBL 7-1-5

PIREP ELEMENT CODE CHART

e. The FAA, NWS, and other organizations that enter PIREP's into the weather reporting system use the format listed in TBL 7-1-5. Items 1 through 6 are included in all transmitted PIREP's along with one or more of items 7 through 13. Although the PIREP should be as complete and concise as possible, pilots should not be overly concerned with strict format or phraseology. The important thing is that the information is relayed so other pilots may benefit from your observation. If a portion of the report needs clarification, the ground station will request the information. Completed PIREP's will be transmitted to weather circuits as in the following examples:

EXAMPLE-
1. KCMH UA /OV APE 230010/TM 1516/FL085/TP BE20/SK BKN065/WX FV03SM HZ FU/TA 20/TB LGT

NOTE-
1. One zero miles southwest of Appleton VOR; time 1516 UTC; altitude eight thousand five hundred; aircraft type BE200; bases of the broken cloud layer is six thousand five hundred; flight visibility 3 miles with haze and smoke; air temperature 20 degrees Celsius; light turbulence.

EXAMPLE-
2. KCRW UV /OV KBKW 360015-KCRW/TM 1815/FL120//TP BE99/SK IMC/WX RA/TA M08 /WV 290030/TB LGT-MDT/IC LGT RIME/RM MDT MXD ICG DURGC KROA NWBND FL080-100 1750Z

NOTE-
2. From 15 miles north of Beckley VOR to Charleston VOR; time 1815 UTC; altitude 12,000 feet; type aircraft, BE-99; in clouds; rain; temperature minus 8 Celsius; wind 290 degrees true at 30 knots; light to moderate turbulence; light rime icing; encountered moderate mixed icing during climb northwestbound from Roanoke, VA, between 8,000 and 10,000 feet at 1750 UTC.

7-1-20. PIREP's Relating to Airframe Icing

a. The effects of ice on aircraft are cumulative-thrust is reduced, drag increases, lift lessens, and weight increases. The results are an increase in stall speed and a deterioration of aircraft performance. In extreme cases, 2 to 3 inches of ice can form on the leading edge of the airfoil in less than 5 minutes. It takes but ¹/₂ inch of ice to reduce the lifting power of some aircraft by 50 percent and increases the frictional drag by an equal percentage.

b. A pilot can expect icing when flying in visible precipitation, such as rain or cloud droplets, and the temperature is between +02 and -10 degrees Celsius. When icing is detected, a pilot should do one of two things, particularly if the aircraft is not equipped with deicing equipment; get out of the area of precipitation; or go to an altitude where the temperature is above freezing. This "warmer" altitude may not always be a lower altitude. Proper preflight action includes obtaining information on the freezing level and the above freezing levels in precipitation areas. Report icing to ATC, and if operating IFR, request new routing or altitude if icing will be a hazard. Be sure to give the type of aircraft to ATC when reporting icing. The following describes how to report icing conditions.

1. Trace. Ice becomes perceptible. Rate of accumulation slightly greater than sublimation. Deicing/anti-icing equipment is not utilized unless encountered for an extended period of time (over 1 hour).

2. Light. The rate of accumulation may create a problem if flight is prolonged in this environment (over 1 hour). Occasional use of deicing/anti-icing equipment removes/prevents accumulation. It does not present a problem if the deicing/anti-icing equipment is used.

3. Moderate. The rate of accumulation is such that even short encounters become potentially hazardous and use of deicing/anti-icing equipment or flight diversion is necessary.

4. Severe. The rate of accumulation is such that deicing/anti-icing equipment fails to reduce or control the hazard. Immediate flight diversion is necessary.

EXAMPLE-
Pilot report: give aircraft identification, location, time (UTC), intensity of type, altitude/FL, aircraft type, indicated air speed (IAS), and outside air temperature (OAT).

NOTE-
1. Rime ice. Rough, milky, opaque ice formed by the instantaneous freezing of small supercooled water droplets.
2. Clear ice. A glossy, clear, or translucent ice formed by the relatively slow freezing of large supercooled water droplets.
3. The OAT should be requested by the AFSS/FSS or ATC if not included in the PIREP.

7-1-21. PIREP's Relating to Turbulence

a. When encountering turbulence, pilots are urgently requested to report such conditions to ATC as soon as practicable. PIREP's relating to turbulence should state:

1. Aircraft location.

2. Time of occurrence in UTC.

3. Turbulence intensity.

4. Whether the turbulence occurred in or near clouds.

5. Aircraft altitude or flight level.

6. Type of aircraft.

7. Duration of turbulence.

EXAMPLE-
1. Over Omaha, 1232Z, moderate turbulence in clouds at Flight Level three one zero, Boeing 707.
2. From five zero miles south of Albuquerque to three zero miles north of Phoenix, 1250Z, occasional moderate chop at Flight Level three three zero, DC8.

b. Duration and classification of intensity should be made using TBL 7-1-6.

TBL 7-1-6

Turbulence Reporting Criteria Table

7-1-22. Wind Shear PIREP's

a. Because unexpected changes in wind speed and direction can be hazardous to aircraft operations at low altitudes on approach to and departing from airports, pilots are urged to promptly volunteer reports to controllers of wind shear conditions they encounter. An advance warning of this information will assist other pilots in avoiding or coping with a wind shear on approach or departure.

b. When describing conditions, use of the terms "negative" or "positive" wind shear should be avoided. PIREP's of "negative wind shear on final," intended to describe loss of airspeed and lift, have been interpreted to mean that no wind shear was encountered. The recommended method for wind shear reporting is to state the loss or gain of airspeed and the altitudes at which it was encountered.

EXAMPLE-
1. Denver Tower, Cessna 1234 encountered wind shear, loss of 20 knots at 400.
2. Tulsa Tower, American 721 encountered wind shear on final, gained 25 knots between 600 and 400 feet followed by loss of 40 knots between 400 feet and surface.

1. Pilots who are not able to report wind shear in these specific terms are encouraged to make reports in terms of the effect upon their aircraft.

EXAMPLE-
Miami Tower, Gulfstream 403 Charlie encountered an abrupt wind shear at 800 feet on final, max thrust required.

2. Pilots using Inertial Navigation Systems (INS's) should report the wind and altitude both above and below the shear level.

 

FIG 7-1-7

Evolution of a Microburst

7-1-23. Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) PIREP's

CAT has become a very serious operational factor to flight operations at all levels and especially to jet traffic flying in excess of 15,000 feet. The best available information on this phenomenon must come from pilots via the PIREP reporting procedures. All pilots encountering CAT conditions are urgently requested to report time, location, and intensity (light, moderate, severe, or extreme) of the element to the FAA facility with which they are maintaining radio contact. If time and conditions permit, elements should be reported according to the standards for other PIREP's and position reports.

REFERENCE-
AIM, PIREP's Relating to Turbulence, Paragraph 7-1-21.

7-1-24. Microbursts

a. Relatively recent meteorological studies have confirmed the existence of microburst phenomenon. Microbursts are small scale intense downdrafts which, on reaching the surface, spread outward in all directions from the downdraft center. This causes the presence of both vertical and horizontal wind shears that can be extremely hazardous to all types and categories of aircraft, especially at low altitudes. Due to their small size, short life span, and the fact that they can occur over areas without surface precipitation, microbursts are not easily detectable using conventional weather radar or wind shear alert systems.

b. Parent clouds producing microburst activity can be any of the low or middle layer convective cloud types. Note, however, that microbursts commonly occur within the heavy rain portion of thunderstorms, and in much weaker, benign appearing convective cells that have little or no precipitation reaching the ground.

c. The life cycle of a microburst as it descends in a convective rain shaft is seen in FIG 7-1-7. An important consideration for pilots is the fact that the microburst intensifies for about 5 minutes after it strikes the ground.

d. Characteristics of microbursts include:

1. Size. The microburst downdraft is typically less than 1 mile in diameter as it descends from the cloud base to about 1,000-3,000 feet above the ground. In the transition zone near the ground, the downdraft changes to a horizontal outflow that can extend to approximately 2 ¹/₂ miles in diameter.

FIG 7-1-8

Microburst Encounter During Takeoff

2. Intensity. The downdrafts can be as strong as 6,000 feet per minute. Horizontal winds near the surface can be as strong as 45 knots resulting in a 90 knot shear (headwind to tailwind change for a traversing aircraft) across the microburst. These strong horizontal winds occur within a few hundred feet of the ground.

3. Visual Signs. Microbursts can be found almost anywhere that there is convective activity. They may be embedded in heavy rain associated with a thunderstorm or in light rain in benign appearing virga. When there is little or no precipitation at the surface accompanying the microburst, a ring of blowing dust may be the only visual clue of its existence.

4. Duration. An individual microburst will seldom last longer than 15 minutes from the time it strikes the ground until dissipation. The horizontal winds continue to increase during the first 5 minutes with the maximum intensity winds lasting approximately 2-4 minutes. Sometimes microbursts are concentrated into a line structure, and under these conditions, activity may continue for as long as an hour. Once microburst activity starts, multiple microbursts in the same general area are not uncommon and should be expected.

e. Microburst wind shear may create a severe hazard for aircraft within 1,000 feet of the ground, particularly during the approach to landing and landing and take-off phases. The impact of a microburst on aircraft which have the unfortunate experience of penetrating one is characterized in FIG 7-1-8. The aircraft may encounter a headwind (performance increasing) followed by a downdraft and tailwind (both performance decreasing), possibly resulting in terrain impact.

FIG 7-1-9

f. Detection of Microbursts, Wind Shear and Gust Fronts.

1. FAA's Integrated Wind Shear Detection Plan.

(a) The FAA currently employs an integrated plan for wind shear detection that will significantly improve both the safety and capacity of the majority of the airports currently served by the air carriers. This plan integrates several programs, such as the Integrated Terminal Weather System (ITWS), Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR), Weather System Processor (WSP), and Low Level Wind Shear Alert Systems (LLWAS) into a single strategic concept that significantly improves the aviation weather information in the terminal area. (See FIG 7-1-9.)

(b) The wind shear/microburst information and warnings are displayed on the ribbon display terminals (RBDT) located in the tower cabs. They are identical (and standardized) in the LLWAS, TDWR and WSP systems, and so designed that the controller does not need to interpret the data, but simply read the displayed information to the pilot. The RBDT's are constantly monitored by the controller to ensure the rapid and timely dissemination of any hazardous event(s) to the pilot.

(c) The early detection of a wind shear/micro-burst event, and the subsequent warning(s) issued to an aircraft on approach or departure, will alert the pilot/crew to the potential of, and to be prepared for, a situation that could become very dangerous! Without these warnings, the aircraft may NOT be able to climb out of, or safely transition, the event, resulting in a catastrophe. The air carriers, working with the FAA, have developed specialized training programs using their simulators to train and prepare their pilots on the demanding aircraft procedures required to escape these very dangerous wind shear and/or microburst encounters.

FIG 7-1-10

2. Low Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS).

(a) The LLWAS provides wind data and software processes to detect the presence of hazardous wind shear and microbursts in the vicinity of an airport. Wind sensors, mounted on poles sometimes as high as 150 feet, are (ideally) located 2,000 - 3,500 feet, but not more than 5,000 feet, from the centerline of the runway. (See FIG 7-1-10.)

(b) LLWAS was fielded in 1988 at 110 airports across the nation. Many of these systems have been replaced by new TDWR and WSP technology. Eventually all LLWAS systems will be phased out; however, 39 airports will be upgraded to the LLWAS-NE (Network Expansion) system, which employs the very latest software and sensor technology. The new LLWAS-NE systems will not only provide the controller with wind shear warnings and alerts, including wind shear/microburst detection at the airport wind sensor location, but will also provide the location of the hazards relative to the airport runway(s). It will also have the flexibility and capability to grow with the airport as new runways are built. As many as 32 sensors, strategically located around the airport and in relationship to its runway configuration, can be accommodated by the LLWAS-NE network.

FIG 7-1-11

3. Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR).

(a) TDWR's are being deployed at 45 locations across the U.S.. Optimum locations for TDWR's are 8 to 12 miles off of the airport proper, and designed to look at the airspace around and over the airport to detect microbursts, gust fronts, wind shifts and precipitation intensities. TDWR products advise the controller of wind shear and microburst events impacting all runways and the areas ¹/₂ mile on either side of the extended centerline of the runways out to 3 miles on final approach and 2 miles out on departure.
(FIG 7-1-11 is a theoretical view of the warning boxes, including the runway, that the software uses in determining the location(s) of wind shear or microbursts). These warnings are displayed (as depicted in the examples in subparagraph 5) on the RBDT.

(b) It is very important to understand what TDWR does NOT DO:

It DOES NOT warn of wind shear outside of the alert boxes (on the arrival and departure ends of the runways);

It DOES NOT detect wind shear that is NOT a microburst or a gust front;

It DOES NOT detect gusty or cross wind conditions; and

It DOES NOT detect turbulence.

However, research and development is continuing on these systems. Future improvements may include such areas as storm motion (movement), improved gust front detection, storm growth and decay, microburst prediction, and turbulence detection.

(c) TDWR also provides a geographical situation display (GSD) for supervisors and traffic management specialists for planning purposes. The GSD displays (in color) 6 levels of weather (precipitation), gust fronts and predicted storm movement(s). See FIG 7-1-12 for a sample of what that display looks like. This data is used by the tower supervisor(s), traffic management specialists and controllers to plan for runway changes and arrival/departure route changes in order to both reduce aircraft delays and increase airport capacity.

FIG 7-1-12

4. Weather System Processor (WSP).

(a) The WSP provides the controller, supervisor, traffic management specialist, and ultimately the pilot, with the same products as the terminal doppler weather radar (TDWR) at a fraction of the cost of a TDWR. This is accomplished by utilizing new technologies to access the weather channel capabilities of the existing ASR-9 radar located on or near the airport, thus eliminating the requirements for a separate radar location, land acquisition, support facilities and the associated communication landlines and expenses.

(b) The WSP utilizes the same RBDT display as the TDWR and LLWAS, and, just like TDWR, also has a GSD for planning purposes by supervisors, traffic management specialists and controllers. The WSP GSD emulates the TDWR display, i.e., it also depicts 6 levels of precipitation, gust fronts and predicted storm movement, and like the TDWR GSD, is used to plan for runway changes and arrival/departure route changes in order to reduce aircraft delays and to increase airport capacity.

(c) This system is currently under development and is operating in a developmental test status at the Albuquerque, New Mexico, airport. When fielded, the WSP is expected to be installed at 34 airports across the nation, substantially increasing the safety of the American flying public.

5. Operational aspects of LLWAS, TDWR and WSP.

To demonstrate how this data is used by both the controller and the pilot, 3 ribbon display examples and their explanations are presented:

(a) MICROBURST ALERTS

EXAMPLE-
This is what the controller sees on his/her ribbon display in the tower cab.

27A MBA 35K- 2MF 250 20

NOTE-
(See FIG 7-1-13 to see how the TDWR/WSP determines the microburst location).

This is what the controller will say when issuing the alert.

PHRASEOLOGY-
RUNWAY 27 ARRIVAL, MICROBURST ALERT, 35 KT LOSS 2 MILE FINAL, THRESHOLD WIND 250 AT 20.

In plain language, the controller is telling the pilot that on approach to runway 27, there is a microburst alert on the approach lane to the runway, and to anticipate or expect a 35 knot loss of airspeed at approximately 2 miles out on final approach (where it will first encounter the phenomena). With that information, the aircrew is forewarned, and should be prepared to apply wind shear/microburst escape procedures should they decide to continue the approach. Additionally, the surface winds at the airport for landing runway 27 are reported as 250 degrees at 20 knots.

NOTE-
Threshold wind is at pilot's request or as deemed appropriate by the controller.

REFERENCE-
FAA Order 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, Low Level Wind Shear Advisories, Paragraph 3-1-8b2(a).

(b) WIND SHEAR ALERTS

EXAMPLE-
This is what the controller sees on his/her ribbon display in the tower cab.

27A WSA 20K- 3MF 200 15

NOTE-
(See FIG 7-1-14 to see how the TDWR/WSP determines the wind shear location).

This is what the controller will say when issuing the alert.

PHRASEOLOGY-
RUNWAY 27 ARRIVAL, WIND SHEAR ALERT, 20 KT LOSS 3 MILE FINAL, THRESHOLD WIND 200 AT 15.

In plain language, the controller is advising the aircraft arriving on runway 27 that at about 3 miles out they can expect to encounter a wind shear condition that will decrease their airspeed by 20 knots and possibly encounter turbulence. Additionally, the airport surface winds for landing runway 27 are reported as 200 degrees at 15 knots.

NOTE-
Threshold wind is at pilot's request or as deemed appropriate by the controller.

REFERENCE-
FAA Order 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, Low Level Wind Shear Advisories, Paragraph 3-1-8b2(a).

FIG 7-1-13

FIG 7-1-14

FIG 7-1-15

(c) MULTIPLE WIND SHEAR ALERTS

EXAMPLE-
This is what the controller sees on his/her ribbon display in the tower cab.

27A WSA 20K+ RWY 250 20

27D WSA 20K+ RWY 250 20

NOTE-
(See FIG 7-1-15 to see how the TDWR/WSP determines the gust front/wind shear location.)

This is what the controller will say when issuing the alert.

PHRASEOLOGY-
MULTIPLE WIND SHEAR ALERTS. RUNWAY 27 ARRIVAL, WIND SHEAR ALERT, 20 KT GAIN ON RUNWAY; RUNWAY 27 DEPARTURE, WIND SHEAR ALERT, 20 KT GAIN ON RUNWAY, WIND 250 AT 20.

EXAMPLE-
In this example, the controller is advising arriving and departing aircraft that they could encounter a wind shear condition right on the runway due to a gust front (significant change of wind direction) with the possibility of a 20 knot gain in airspeed associated with the gust front. Additionally, the airport surface winds (for the runway in use) are reported as 250 degrees at 20 knots.

REFERENCE-
FAA Order 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, Low Level Wind Shear Advisories, Paragraph 3-1-8b2(d).

6. The Terminal Weather Information for Pilots System (TWIP).

(a) With the increase in the quantity and quality of terminal weather information available through TDWR, the next step is to provide this information directly to pilots rather than relying on voice communications from ATC. The National Airspace System has long been in need of a means of delivering terminal weather information to the cockpit more efficiently in terms of both speed and accuracy to enhance pilot awareness of weather hazards and reduce air traffic controller workload. With the TWIP capability, terminal weather information, both alphanumerically and graphically, is now available directly to the cockpit on a test basis at 9 locations.

(b) TWIP products are generated using weather data from the TDWR or the Integrated Terminal Weather System (ITWS) testbed. TWIP products are generated and stored in the form of text and character graphic messages. Software has been developed to allow TDWR or ITWS to format the data and send the TWIP products to a database resident at Aeronautical Radio, Inc. (ARINC). These products can then be accessed by pilots using the ARINC Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) data link services. Airline dispatchers can also access this database and send messages to specific aircraft whenever wind shear activity begins or ends at an airport.

(c) TWIP products include descriptions and character graphics of microburst alerts, wind shear alerts, significant precipitation, convective activity within 30 NM surrounding the terminal area, and expected weather that will impact airport operations. During inclement weather, i.e., whenever a predetermined level of precipitation or wind shear is detected within 15 miles of the terminal area, TWIP products are updated once each minute for text messages and once every five minutes for character graphic messages. During good weather (below the predetermined precipitation or wind shear parameters) each message is updated every 10 minutes. These products are intended to improve the situational awareness of the pilot/flight crew, and to aid in flight planning prior to arriving or departing the terminal area. It is important to understand that, in the context of TWIP, the predetermined levels for inclement versus good weather has nothing to do with the criteria for VFR/MVFR/IFR/LIFR; it only deals with precipitation, wind shears and microbursts.

7-1-25. PIREP's Relating to Volcanic Ash Activity

a. Volcanic eruptions which send ash into the upper atmosphere occur somewhere around the world several times each year. Flying into a volcanic ash cloud can be extremely dangerous. At least two B747's have lost all power in all four engines after such an encounter. Regardless of the type aircraft, some damage is almost certain to ensue after an encounter with a volcanic ash cloud.

b. While some volcanoes in the U.S. are monitored, many in remote areas are not. These unmonitored volcanoes may erupt without prior warning to the aviation community. A pilot observing a volcanic eruption who has not had previous notification of it may be the only witness to the eruption. Pilots are strongly encouraged to transmit a PIREP regarding volcanic eruptions and any observed volcanic ash clouds.

c. Pilots should submit PIREP's regarding volcanic activity using the Volcanic Activity Reporting (VAR) form as illustrated in Appendix 2. If a VAR form is not immediately available, relay enough information to identify the position and type of volcanic activity.

d. Pilots should verbally transmit the data required in items 1 through 8 of the VAR as soon as possible. The data required in items 9 through 16 of the VAR should be relayed after landing if possible.

7-1-26. Thunderstorms

a. Turbulence, hail, rain, snow, lightning, sustained updrafts and downdrafts, icing conditions-all are present in thunderstorms. While there is some evidence that maximum turbulence exists at the middle level of a thunderstorm, recent studies show little variation of turbulence intensity with altitude.

b. There is no useful correlation between the external visual appearance of thunderstorms and the severity or amount of turbulence or hail within them. The visible thunderstorm cloud is only a portion of a turbulent system whose updrafts and downdrafts often extend far beyond the visible storm cloud. Severe turbulence can be expected up to 20 miles from severe thunderstorms. This distance decreases to about 10 miles in less severe storms.

c. Weather radar, airborne or ground based, will normally reflect the areas of moderate to heavy precipitation (radar does not detect turbulence). The frequency and severity of turbulence generally increases with the radar reflectivity which is closely associated with the areas of highest liquid water content of the storm. NO FLIGHT PATH THROUGH AN AREA OF STRONG OR VERY STRONG RADAR ECHOES SEPARATED BY 20-30 MILES OR LESS MAY BE CONSIDERED FREE OF SEVERE TURBULENCE.

d. Turbulence beneath a thunderstorm should not be minimized. This is especially true when the relative humidity is low in any layer between the surface and 15,000 feet. Then the lower altitudes may be characterized by strong out flowing winds and severe turbulence.

e. The probability of lightning strikes occurring to aircraft is greatest when operating at altitudes where temperatures are between minus 5 degrees Celsius and plus 5 degrees Celsius. Lightning can strike aircraft flying in the clear in the vicinity of a thunderstorm.

f. METAR reports do not include a descriptor for severe thunderstorms. However, by understanding severe thunderstorm criteria, i.e., 50 knot winds or ³/₄ inch hail, the information is available in the report to know that one is occurring.

g. NWS radar systems are able to objectively determine radar weather echo intensity levels by use of Video Integrator Processor (VIP) equipment. These thunderstorm intensity levels are on a scale of one to six.

REFERENCE-
Pilot/Controller Glossary, Radar Weather Echo Intensity Levels.

EXAMPLE-
1. Alert provided by an ATC facility to an aircraft:
(aircraft identification) level five intense weather echo between ten o'clock and two o'clock, one zero miles, moving east at two zero knots, tops Flight Level three nine zero.
2. Alert provided by an AFSS/FSS:
(aircraft identification) level five intense weather echo, two zero miles west of Atlanta V-O-R, two five miles wide, moving east at two zero knots, tops Flight Level three nine zero.

7-1-27. Thunderstorm Flying

a. Above all, remember this: never regard any thunderstorm "lightly" even when radar observers report the echoes are of light intensity. Avoiding thunderstorms is the best policy. Following are some Do's and Don'ts of thunderstorm avoidance:

1. Don't land or takeoff in the face of an approaching thunderstorm. A sudden gust front of low level turbulence could cause loss of control.

2. Don't attempt to fly under a thunderstorm even if you can see through to the other side. Turbulence and wind shear under the storm could be disastrous.

3. Don't fly without airborne radar into a cloud mass containing scattered embedded thunderstorms. Scattered thunderstorms not embedded usually can be visually circumnavigated.

4. Don't trust the visual appearance to be a reliable indicator of the turbulence inside a thunderstorm.

5. Do avoid by at least 20 miles any thunderstorm identified as severe or giving an intense radar echo. This is especially true under the anvil of a large cumulonimbus.

6. Do clear the top of a known or suspected severe thunderstorm by at least 1,000 feet altitude for each 10 knots of wind speed at the cloud top. This should exceed the altitude capability of most aircraft.

7. Do circumnavigate the entire area if the area has ⁶/₁₀ thunderstorm coverage.

8. Do remember that vivid and frequent lightning indicates the probability of a strong thunderstorm.

9. Do regard as extremely hazardous any thunderstorm with tops 35,000 feet or higher whether the top is visually sighted or determined by radar.

b. If you cannot avoid penetrating a thunderstorm, following are some Do's before entering the storm:

1. Tighten your safety belt, put on your shoulder harness if you have one and secure all loose objects.

2. Plan and hold your course to take you through the storm in a minimum time.

3. To avoid the most critical icing, establish a penetration altitude below the freezing level or above the level of minus 15 degrees Celsius.

4. Verify that pitot heat is on and turn on carburetor heat or jet engine anti-ice. Icing can be rapid at any altitude and cause almost instantaneous power failure and/or loss of airspeed indication.

5. Establish power settings for turbulence penetration airspeed recommended in your aircraft manual.

6. Turn up cockpit lights to highest intensity to lessen temporary blindness from lightning.

7. If using automatic pilot, disengage altitude hold mode and speed hold mode. The automatic altitude and speed controls will increase maneuvers of the aircraft thus increasing structural stress.

8. If using airborne radar, tilt the antenna up and down occasionally. This will permit you to detect other thunderstorm activity at altitudes other than the one being flown.

c. Following are some Do's and Don'ts during the thunderstorm penetration:

1. Do keep your eyes on your instruments. Looking outside the cockpit can increase danger of temporary blindness from lightning.

2. Don't change power settings; maintain settings for the recommended turbulence penetration airspeed.

3. Do maintain constant attitude; let the aircraft "ride the waves." Maneuvers in trying to maintain constant altitude increase stress on the aircraft.

4. Don't turn back once you are in the thunderstorm. A straight course through the storm most likely will get you out of the hazards most quickly. In addition, turning maneuvers increase stress on the aircraft.

7-1-28. Key to Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR)

FIG 7-1-16

FIG 7-1-17

7-1-29. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Weather Formats

The U.S. uses the ICAO world standard for aviation weather reporting and forecasting. The utilization of terminal forecasts affirms our commitment to a single global format for aviation weather. The World Meteorological Organization's (WMO) publication No. 782 "Aerodrome Reports and Forecasts" contains the base METAR and TAF code as adopted by the WMO member countries.

a. Although the METAR code is adopted worldwide, each country is allowed to make modifications or exceptions to the code for use in their particular country, e.g., the U.S. will continue to use statute miles for visibility, feet for RVR values, knots for wind speed, and inches of mercury for altimetry. However, temperature and dew point will be reported in degrees Celsius. The U.S. will continue reporting prevailing visibility rather than lowest sector visibility. Most of the current U.S. observing procedures and policies will continue after the METAR conversion date, with the information disseminated in the METAR code and format. The elements in the body of a METAR report are separated with a space. The only exceptions are RVR, temperature and dew point, which are separated with a solidus (/). When an element does not occur, or cannot be observed, the preceding space and that element are omitted from that particular report. A METAR report contains the following sequence of elements in the following order:

1. Type of report.

2. ICAO Station Identifier.

3. Date and time of report.

4. Modifier (as required).

5. Wind.

6. Visibility.

7. Runway Visual Range (RVR).

8. Weather phenomena.

9. Sky conditions.

10. Temperature/dew point group.

11. Altimeter.

12. Remarks (RMK).

b. The following paragraphs describe the elements in a METAR report.

1. Type of Report. There are two types of report:

(a) Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR); and

(b) Nonroutine (Special) Aviation Weather Report (SPECI).

The type of report (METAR or SPECI) will always appear as the lead element of the report.

2. ICAO Station Identifier. The METAR code uses ICAO 4-letter station identifiers. In the contiguous 48 States, the 3-letter domestic station identifier is prefixed with a "K;" i.e., the domestic identifier for Seattle is SEA while the ICAO identifier is KSEA. Elsewhere, the first two letters of the ICAO identifier indicate what region of the world and country (or state) the station is in. For Alaska, all station identifiers start with "PA;" for Hawaii, all station identifiers start with "PH." Canadian station identifiers start with "CU," "CW," "CY," and "CZ." Mexican station identifiers start with "MM." The identifier for the western Caribbean is "M" followed by the individual country's letter; i.e., Cuba is "MU;" Dominican Republic "MD;" the Bahamas "MY." The identifier for the eastern Caribbean is "T" followed by the individual country's letter; i.e., Puerto Rico is "TJ." For a complete worldwide listing see ICAO Document 7910, Location Indicators.

3. Date and Time of Report. The date and time the observation is taken are transmitted as a six-digit date/time group appended with Z to denote Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The first two digits are the date followed with two digits for hour and two digits for minutes.

EXAMPLE-
172345Z (the 17^th day of the month at 2345Z)

4. Modifier (As Required). "AUTO" identifies a METAR/SPECI report as an automated weather report with no human intervention. If "AUTO" is shown in the body of the report, the type of sensor equipment used at the station will be encoded in the remarks section of the report. The absence of "AUTO" indicates that a report was made manually by an observer or that an automated report had human augmentation/backup. The modifier "COR" indicates a corrected report that is sent out to replace an earlier report with an error.

NOTE-
There are two types of automated stations, AO1 for automated weather reporting stations without a precipitation discriminator, and AO2 for automated stations with a precipitation discriminator. (A precipitation discriminator can determine the difference between liquid and frozen/freezing precipitation). This information appears in the remarks section of an automated report.

5. Wind. The wind is reported as a five digit group (six digits if speed is over 99 knots). The first three digits are the direction the wind is blowing from, in tens of degrees referenced to true north, or "VRB" if the direction is variable. The next two digits is the wind speed in knots, or if over 99 knots, the next three digits. If the wind is gusty, it is reported as a "G" after the speed followed by the highest gust reported. The abbreviation "KT" is appended to denote the use of knots for wind speed.

EXAMPLE-
13008KT - wind from 130 degrees at 8 knots
08032G45KT - wind from 080 degrees at 32 knots with gusts to 45 knots
VRB04KT - wind variable in direction at 4 knots
00000KT - wind calm
210103G130KT - wind from 210 degrees at 103 knots with gusts to 130 knots
If the wind direction is variable by 60 degrees or more and the speed is greater than 6 knots, a variable group consisting of the extremes of the wind direction separated by a "v" will follow the prevailing wind group.
32012G22KT 280V350

(a) Peak Wind. Whenever the peak wind exceeds 25 knots "PK WND" will be included in Remarks, e.g., PK WND 28045/1955 "Peak wind two eight zero at four five occurred at one niner five five." If the hour can be inferred from the report time, only the minutes will be appended, e.g., PK WND 34050/38 "Peak wind three four zero at five zero occurred at three eight past the hour."

(b) Wind shift. Whenever a wind shift occurs, "WSHFT" will be included in remarks followed by the time the wind shift began, e.g., WSHFT 30 FROPA "Wind shift at three zero due to frontal passage."

6. Visibility. Prevailing visibility is reported in statute miles with "SM" appended to it.

EXAMPLE-
7SM - seven statute miles
15SM - fifteen statute miles
¹/₂SM - one-half statute mile

(a) Tower/surface visibility. If either visibility (tower or surface) is below four statute miles, the lesser of the two will be reported in the body of the report; the greater will be reported in remarks.

(b) Automated visibility. ASOS visibility stations will show visibility ten or greater than ten miles as "10SM." AWOS visibility stations will show visibility less than ¹/₄ statute mile as "M¹/₄SM" and visibility ten or greater than ten miles as "10SM."

(c) Variable visibility. Variable visibility is shown in remarks (when rapid increase or decrease by ¹/₂ statute mile or more and the average prevailing visibility is less than three miles) e.g., VIS 1V2 "visibility variable between one and two."

(d) Sector visibility. Sector visibility is shown in remarks when it differs from the prevailing visibility, and either the prevailing or sector visibility is less than three miles.

EXAMPLE-
VIS N2 - visibility north two

7. Runway Visual Range (When Reported). "R" identifies the group followed by the runway heading (and parallel runway designator, if needed) "/" and the visual range in feet (meters in other countries) followed with "FT" (feet is not spoken).

(a) Variability Values. When RVR varies (by more than on reportable value), the lowest and highest values are shown with "V" between them.

(b) Maximum/Minimum Range. "P" indicates an observed RVR is above the maximum value for this system (spoken as "more than"). "M" indicates an observed RVR is below the minimum value which can be determined by the system (spoken as "less than").

EXAMPLE-
R32L/1200FT - runway three two left R-V-R one thousand two hundred.
R27R/M1000V4000FT - runway two seven right R-V-R variable from less than one thousand to four thousand.

8. Weather Phenomena. The weather as reported in the METAR code represents a significant change in the way weather is currently reported. In METAR, weather is reported in the format:

Intensity/Proximity/Descriptor/Precipitation/Obstruction to visibility/Other

NOTE-
The "/" above and in the following descriptions (except as the separator between the temperature and dew point) are for separation purposes in this publication and do not appear in the actual METAR's.

(a) Intensity applies only to the first type of precipitation reported. A "-" denotes light, no symbol denotes moderate, and a "+" denotes heavy.

(b) Proximity applies to and reported only for weather occurring in the vicinity of the airport (between 5 and 10 miles of the point(s) of observation). It is denoted by the letters "VC." (Intensity and "VC" will not appear together in the weather group).

(c) Descriptor. These eight descriptors apply to the precipitation or obstructions to visibility:
TS thunderstorm
DR low drifting
SH showers
MI shallow
FZ freezing
BC patches
BL blowing
PR partial

NOTE-
Although "TS" and "SH" are used with precipitation and may be preceded with an intensity symbol, the intensity still applies to the precipitation, not the descriptor.

(d) Precipitation. There are nine types of precipitation in the METAR code:
RA rain
DZ drizzle
SN snow
GR hail (¹/₄" or greater)
GS small hail/snow pellets
PL ice pellets
SG snow grains
IC ice crystals (diamond dust)
UP unknown precipitation
(automated stations only)

(e) Obstructions to visibility. There are eight types of obscuration phenomena in the METAR code (obscurations are any phenomena in the atmosphere, other than precipitation, that reduce horizontal visibility):
FG fog (vsby less than ⁵/₈ mile)
HZ haze
FU smoke
PY spray
BR mist (vsby ⁵/₈ - 6 miles)
SA sand
DU dust
VA volcanic ash

NOTE-
Fog (FG) is observed or forecast only when the visibility is less than five-eighths of mile, otherwise mist (BR) is observed or forecast.

(f) Other. There are five categories of other weather phenomena which are reported when they occur:
SQ squall
SS sandstorm
DS duststorm
PO dust/sand whirls
FC funnel cloud
+FC tornado/waterspout

Examples:

TSRA thunderstorm with moderate rain
+SN heavy snow
-RA FG light rain and fog
BRHZ mist and haze (visibility ⁵/₈ mile or greater)
FZDZ freezing drizzle
VCSH rain shower in the vicinity
+SHRASNPL heavy rain showers, snow, ice pellets (intensity indicator refers to the predominant rain)

9. Sky Condition. The sky condition as reported in METAR represents a significant change from the way sky condition is currently reported. In METAR, sky condition is reported in the format:

Amount/Height/(Type) or Indefinite Ceiling/Height

(a) Amount. The amount of sky cover is reported in eighths of sky cover, using the contractions:
SKC clear (no clouds)
FEW >0 to ²/₈
SCT scattered (³/_8's to ⁴/_8's of clouds)
BKN broken (⁵/_8's to ⁷/_8's of clouds)
OVC overcast (⁸/_8's clouds)
CB Cumulonimbus when present
TCU Towering cumulus when present

NOTE-
1. "SKC" will be reported at manual stations. "CLR" will be used at automated stations when no clouds below 12,000 feet are reported.
2. A ceiling layer is not designated in the METAR code. For aviation purposes, the ceiling is the lowest broken or overcast layer, or vertical visibility into an obscuration. Also there is no provision for reporting thin layers in the METAR code. When clouds are thin, that layer shall be reported as if it were opaque.

(b) Height. Cloud bases are reported with three digits in hundreds of feet. (Clouds above 12,000 feet cannot be reported by an automated station).

(c) (Type). If Towering Cumulus Clouds (TCU) or Cumulonimbus Clouds (CB) are present, they are reported after the height which represents their base.

EXAMPLE-
(Reported as) SCT025TCU BKN080 BKN250 (spoken as) "TWO THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED SCATTERED TOWERING CUMULUS, CEILING EIGHT THOUSAND BROKEN, TWO FIVE THOUSAND BROKEN."
(Reported as) SCT008 OVC012CB (spoken as) "EIGHT HUNDRED SCATTERED CEILING ONE THOUSAND TWO HUNDRED OVERCAST CUMULONIMBUS CLOUDS."

(d) Vertical Visibility (indefinite ceiling height). The height into an indefinite ceiling is preceded by "VV" and followed by three digits indicating the vertical visibility in hundreds of feet. This layer indicates total obscuration.

EXAMPLE-
¹/₈ SM FG VV006 - visibility one eighth, fog, indefinite ceiling six hundred.

(e) Obscurations are reported when the sky is partially obscured by a ground-based phenomena by indicating the amount of obscuration as FEW, SCT, BKN followed by three zeros (000). In remarks, the obscuring phenomenon precedes the amount of obscuration and three zeros.

EXAMPLE-
BKN000 (in body) "sky partially obscured"
FU BKN000 (in remarks) "smoke obscuring five- to seven-eighths of the sky"

(f) When sky conditions include a layer aloft, other than clouds, such as smoke or haze the type of phenomena, sky cover and height are shown in remarks.

EXAMPLE-
BKN020 (in body) "ceiling two thousand broken"
RMK FU BKN020 "broken layer of smoke aloft, based at two thousand"

(g) Variable ceiling. When a ceiling is below three thousand and is variable, the remark "CIG" will be shown followed with the lowest and highest ceiling heights separated by a "V."

EXAMPLE-
CIG 005V010 "ceiling variable between five hundred and one thousand"

(h) Second site sensor. When an automated station uses meteorological discontinuity sensors, remarks will be shown to identify site specific sky conditions which differ and are lower than conditions reported in the body.

EXAMPLE-
CIG 020 RY11 "ceiling two thousand at runway one one"

(i) Variable cloud layer. When a layer is varying in sky cover, remarks will show the variability range. If there is more than one cloud layer, the variable layer will be identified by including the layer height.

EXAMPLE-
SCT V BKN "scattered layer variable to
broken"
BKN025 V OVC "broken layer at two thousand five hundred variable to
overcast"

(j) Significant clouds. When significant clouds are observed, they are shown in remarks, along with the specified information as shown below:

(1) Cumulonimbus (CB), or Cumulonimbus Mammatus (CBMAM), distance (if known), direction from the station, and direction of movement, if known. If the clouds are beyond 10 miles from the airport, DSNT will indicate distance.

EXAMPLE-
CB W MOV E "cumulonimbus west moving east"
CBMAM DSNT S "cumulonimbus mammatus distant south"

(2) Towering Cumulus (TCU), location, (if known), or direction from the station.

EXAMPLE-
TCU OHD "towering cumulus overhead"
TCU W "towering cumulus west"

(3) Altocumulus Castellanus (ACC), Stratocumulus Standing Lenticular (SCSL), Altocumulus Standing Lenticular (ACSL), Cirrocumulus Standing Lenticular (CCSL) or rotor clouds, describing the clouds (if needed) and the direction from the station.

EXAMPLE-
ACC W "altocumulus castellanus west"
ACSL SW-S "standing lenticular
altocumulus southwest through south"
APRNT ROTOR CLD S "apparent rotor cloud south"
CCSL OVR MT E "standing lenticular
cirrocumulus over the mountains east"

10. Temperature/Dew Point. Temperature and dew point are reported in two, two-digit groups in degrees Celsius, separated by a solidus ("/"). Temperatures below zero are prefixed with an "M." If the temperature is available but the dew point is missing, the temperature is shown followed by a solidus. If the temperature is missing, the group is omitted from the report.

EXAMPLE-
15/08 "temperature one five, dew point 8"
00/M02 "temperature zero, dew point minus 2"
M05/"temperature minus five, dew point missing"

11. Altimeter. Altimeter settings are reported in a four-digit format in inches of mercury prefixed with an "A" to denote the units of pressure.

EXAMPLE-
A2995 - "Altimeter two niner niner five"

12. Remarks. Remarks will be included in all observations, when appropriate. The contraction "RMK" denotes the start of the remarks section of a METAR report.

Except for precipitation, phenomena located within 5 statute miles of the point of observation will be reported as at the station. Phenomena between 5 and 10 statute miles will be reported in the vicinity, "VC." Precipitation not occurring at the point of observation but within 10 statute miles is also reported as in the vicinity, "VC."
Phenomena beyond 10 statute miles will be shown as distant, "DSNT." Distances are in statute miles except for automated lightning remarks which are in nautical miles. Movement of clouds or weather will be indicated by the direction toward which the phenomena is moving.

(a) There are two categories of remarks:

(1) Automated, manual, and plain language.

(2) Additive and automated maintenance data.

(b) Automated, Manual, and Plain Language.

This group of remarks may be generated from either manual or automated weather reporting stations and generally elaborate on parameters reported in the body of the report. (Plain language remarks are only provided by manual stations).

(1) Volcanic eruptions.

(2) Tornado, Funnel Cloud, Waterspout.

(3) Station Type (AO1 or AO2).

(4) PK WND.

(5) WSHFT (FROPA).

(6) TWR VIS or SFC VIS.

(7) VRB VIS.

(8) Sector VIS.

(9) VIS @ 2^nd Site.

(10) (freq) LTG (type) (loc).

(11) Beginning/Ending of Precipitation/TSTMS.

(12) TSTM Location MVMT.

(13) Hailstone Size (GR).

(14) Virga.

(15) VRB CIG (height).

(16) Obscuration.

(17) VRB Sky Condition.

(18) Significant Cloud Types.

(19) Ceiling Height 2nd Location.

(20) PRESFR PRESRR.

(21) Sea-Level Pressure.

(22) ACFT Mishap (not transmitted).

(23) NOSPECI.

(24) SNINCR.

(25) Other SIG Info.

(c) Additive and Automated Maintenance Data.

(1) Hourly Precipitation.

(2) 3- and 6-Hour Precipitation Amount.

(3) 24-Hour Precipitation.

(4) Snow Depth on Ground.

(5) Water Equivalent of Snow.

(6) Cloud Type.

(7) Duration of Sunshine.

(8) Hourly Temperature/Dew Point (Tenths).

(9) 6-Hour Maximum Temperature.

(10) 6-Hour Minimum Temperature.

(11) 24-Hour Maximum/Minimum Temperature.

(12) Pressure Tendency.

(13) Sensor Status.
PWINO
FZRANO
TSNO
RVRNO
PNO
VISNO

Examples of METAR reports and explanation:

METAR KBNA 281250Z 33018KT 290V360 1/2SM R31/2700FT SN BLSN FG VV008 00/M03 A2991 RMK RAE42SNB42

METAR aviation routine weather report
KBNA Nashville, TN
281250Z date 28^th, time 1250 UTC
(no modifier) This is a manually generated report, due to the absence of "AUTO" and "AO1 or AO2" in remarks
33018KT wind three three zero at one eight
290V360 wind variable between
two nine zero and three six zero
1/2SM visibility one half
R31/2700FT Runway three one RVR two thousand seven hundred
SN moderate snow
BLSN FG visibility obscured by blowing snow and fog
VV008 indefinite ceiling eight hundred
00/M03 temperature zero, dew point minus three
A2991 altimeter two niner niner one
RMK remarks
RAE42 rain ended at four two
SNB42 snow began at four two

METAR KSFO 041453Z AUTO VRB02KT 3SM BR CLR 15/12 A3012 RMK AO2

METAR aviation routine weather report
KSFO San Francisco, CA
041453Z date 4^th, time 1453 UTC
AUTO fully automated; no human
intervention
VRB02KT wind variable at two
3SM visibility three
BR visibility obscured by mist
CLR no clouds below one two
thousand

15/12 temperature one five, dew point one two
A3012 altimeter three zero one two
RMK remarks
AO2 this automated station has a
weather discriminator (for
precipitation)

SPECI KCVG 152224Z 28024G36KT 3/4SM +TSRA BKN008 OVC020CB 28/23 A3000 RMK TSRAB24 TS W
MOV E

SPECI (nonroutine) aviation special weather report
KCVG Cincinnati, OH
152228Z date 15^th, time 2228 UTC
(no modifier) This is a manually generated report due to the absence of "AUTO" and "AO1 or AO2" in remarks
28024G36KT wind two eight zero at two four gusts three six
3/4SM visibility three fourths
+TSRA thunderstorms, heavy rain
BKN008 ceiling eight hundred broken
OVC020CB two thousand overcast cumulonimbus clouds
28/23 temperature two eight, dew point two three
A3000 altimeter three zero zero zero
RMK remarks
TSRAB24 thunderstorm and rain began at two four
TS W MOV E thunderstorm west moving east

c. Aerodrome Forecast (TAF). A concise statement of the expected meteorological conditions at an airport during a specified period (usually 24 hours). TAF's use the same codes as METAR weather reports. They are scheduled four times daily for 24-hour periods beginning at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, and 1800Z. TAF's are issued in the following format:

TYPE OF REPORT/ICAO STATION IDENTIFIER/DATE AND TIME OF ORIGIN/VALID PERIOD DATE AND TIME/FORECAST METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS

NOTE-
The "/" above and in the following descriptions are for separation purposes in this publication and do not appear in the actual TAF's.

TAF
KOKC 051130Z 051212 14008KT 5SM BR BKN030 TEMPO 1316 1 ¹/₂SM BR
FM1600 16010KT P6SM SKC
FM2300 20013G20KT 4SM SHRA OVC020
PROB40 0006 2SM TSRA OVC008CB BECMG 0608 21015KT P6SM NSW SCT040

TAF format observed in the above example:

TAF = type of report

KOKC = ICAO station identifier

051130Z = date and time of origin

051212 = valid period date and times

14008KT 5SM BR BKN030 = forecast meteorological conditions

Explanation of TAF elements:

1. Type of Report. There are two types of TAF issuances, a routine forecast issuance (TAF) and an amended forecast (TAF AMD). An amended TAF is issued when the current TAF no longer adequately describes the on-going weather or the forecaster feels the TAF is not representative of the current or expected weather. Corrected (COR) or delayed (RTD) TAF's are identified only in the communications header which precedes the actual forecasts.

2. ICAO Station Identifier. The TAF code uses ICAO 4-letter location identifiers as described in the METAR section.

3. Date and Time of Origin. This element is the date and time the forecast is actually prepared. The format is a two-digit date and four-digit time followed, without a space, by the letter "Z."

4. Valid Period Date and Time. The UTC valid period of the forecast is a two-digit date followed by the two-digit beginning hour and two-digit ending hour. In the case of an amended forecast, or a forecast which is corrected or delayed, the valid period may be for less than 24 hours. Where an airport or terminal operates on a part-time basis (less than 24 hours/day), the TAF's issued for those locations will have the abbreviated statement "NIL AMD SKED AFT (closing time) Z" added to the end of the forecasts. For the TAF's issued while these locations are closed, the word "NIL" will appear in place of the forecast text. A delayed (RTD) forecast will then be issued for these locations after two complete observations are received.

5. Forecast Meteorological Conditions. This is the body of the TAF. The basic format is:

WIND/VISIBILITY/WEATHER/SKY CONDITION/
OPTIONAL DATA (WIND SHEAR)

The wind, visibility, and sky condition elements are always included in the initial time group of the forecast. Weather is included only if significant to aviation. If a significant, lasting change in any of the elements is expected during the valid period, a new time period with the changes is included. It should be noted that with the exception of a "FM" group the new time period will include only those elements which are expected to change, i.e., if a lowering of the visibility is expected but the wind is expected to remain the same, the new time period reflecting the lower visibility would not include a forecast wind. The forecast wind would remain the same as in the previous time period.

Any temporary conditions expected during a specific time period are included with that time period. The following describes the elements in the above format.

(a) Wind. This five (or six) digit group includes the expected wind direction (first 3 digits) and speed (last 2 digits or 3 digits if 100 knots or greater). The contraction "KT" follows to denote the units of wind speed. Wind gusts are noted by the letter "G" appended to the wind speed followed by the highest expected gust.

A variable wind direction is noted by "VRB" where the three digit direction usually appears. A calm wind (3 knots or less) is forecast as "00000KT."

EXAMPLE-
18010KT wind one eight zero at one zero (wind is blowing from 180).
35012G20KT wind three five zero at one two gust two zero.

(b) Visibility. The expected prevailing visibility up to and including 6 miles is forecast in statute miles, including fractions of miles, followed by "SM" to note the units of measure. Expected visibilities greater than 6 miles are forecast as P6SM (plus six statute miles).

EXAMPLE-
¹/₂SM - visibility one-half
4SM - visibility four
P6SM - visibility more than six

(c) Weather Phenomena. The expected weather phenomena is coded in TAF reports using the same format, qualifiers, and phenomena contractions as METAR reports (except UP).

Obscurations to vision will be forecast whenever the prevailing visibility is forecast to be 6 statute miles or less.

If no significant weather is expected to occur during a specific time period in the forecast, the weather phenomena group is omitted for that time period. If, after a time period in which significant weather phenomena has been forecast, a change to a forecast of no significant weather phenomena occurs, the contraction NSW (No Significant Weather) will appear as the weather group in the new time period. (NSW is included only in BECMG or TEMPO groups).

NOTE-
It is very important that pilots understand that NSW only refers to weather phenomena, i.e., rain, snow, drizzle, etc. Omitted conditions, such as sky conditions, visibility, winds, etc., are carried over from the previous time group.

(d) Sky Condition. TAF sky condition forecasts use the METAR format described in the METAR section. Cumulonimbus clouds (CB) are the only cloud type forecast in TAF's.

When clear skies are forecast, the contraction "SKC" will always be used. The contraction "CLR" is never used in the TAF.

When the sky is obscured due to a surface-based phenomenon, vertical visibility (VV) into the obscuration is forecast. The format for vertical visibility is "VV" followed by a three-digit height in hundreds of feet.

NOTE-
As in METAR, ceiling layers are not designated in the TAF code. For aviation purposes, the ceiling is the lowest broken or overcast layer or vertical visibility into a complete obscuration.

SKC "sky clear"
SCT005 BKN025CB "five hundred scattered, ceiling two thousand five hundred broken cumulonimbus clouds"
VV008 "indefinite ceiling eight hundred"

(e) Optional Data (Wind Shear). Wind shear is the forecast of nonconvective low level winds (up to 2,000 feet). The forecast includes the letters "WS" followed by the height of the wind shear, the wind direction and wind speed at the indicated height and the ending letters "KT" (knots). Height is given in hundreds of feet (AGL) up to and including 2,000 feet. Wind shear is encoded with the contraction "WS," followed by a three-digit height, slant character "/," and winds at the height indicated in the same format as surface winds. The wind shear element is omitted if not expected to occur.

WS010/18040KT - "LOW LEVEL WIND SHEAR AT ONE THOUSAND, WIND ONE EIGHT ZERO AT FOUR ZERO"

d. Probability Forecast. The probability or chance of thunderstorms or other precipitation events occurring, along with associated weather conditions (wind, visibility, and sky conditions).

The PROB30 group is used when the occurrence of thunderstorms or precipitation is 30-39% and the PROB40 group is used when the occurrence of thunderstorms or precipitation is 40-49%. This is followed by a four-digit group giving the beginning hour and ending hour of the time period during which the thunderstorms or precipitation are expected.

NOTE-
Neither PROB30 nor PROB40 will be shown during the first six hours of a forecast.

EXAMPLE-
PROB40 2102 ¹/₂SM +TSRA "chance between 2100Z and 0200Z of visibility one-half statute mile in thunderstorms and heavy rain."
PROB30 1014 1SM RASN "chance between 1000Z and 1400Z of visibility one statute mile in mixed rain and snow."

e. Forecast Change Indicators. The following change indicators are used when either a rapid, gradual, or temporary change is expected in some or all of the forecast meteorological conditions. Each change indicator marks a time group within the TAF report.

1. From (FM) group. The FM group is used when a rapid change, usually occurring in less than one hour, in prevailing conditions is expected. Typically, a rapid change of prevailing conditions to more or less a completely new set of prevailing conditions is associated with a synoptic feature passing through the terminal area (cold or warm frontal passage). Appended to the "FM" indicator is the four-digit hour and minute the change is expected to begin and continues until the next change group or until the end of the current forecast.

A "FM" group will mark the beginning of a new line in a TAF report (indented 5 spaces). Each "FM" group contains all the required elements-wind, visibility, weather, and sky condition. Weather will be omitted in "FM" groups when it is not significant to aviation. FM groups will not include the contraction NSW.

EXAMPLE-
FM0100 14010KT P6SM SKC - "after 0100Z, wind one four zero at one zero, visibility more than six, sky clear."

2. Becoming (BECMG) group. The BECMG group is used when a gradual change in conditions is expected over a longer time period, usually two hours. The time period when the change is expected is a four-digit group with the beginning hour and ending hour of the change period which follows the BECMG indicator. The gradual change will occur at an unspecified time within this time period. Only the changing forecast meteorological conditions are included in BECMG groups. The omitted conditions are carried over from the previous time group.

EXAMPLE-
OVC012 BECMG 1416 BKN020 - "ceiling one thousand two hundred overcast. Then a gradual change to ceiling two thousand broken between 1400Z and 1600Z."

3. Temporary (TEMPO) group. The TEMPO group is used for any conditions in wind, visibility, weather, or sky condition which are expected to last for generally less than an hour at a time (occasional), and are expected to occur during less than half the time period. The TEMPO indicator is followed by a four-digit group giving the beginning hour and ending hour of the time period during which the temporary conditions are expected. Only the changing forecast meteorological conditions are included in TEMPO groups. The omitted conditions are carried over from the previous time group.

EXAMPLE-
1. SCT030 TEMPO 1923 BKN030 - "three thousand scattered with occasional ceilings three thousand broken between 1900Z and 2300Z."
2. 4SM HZ TEMPO 0006 2SM BR HZ - "visibility four in haze with occasional visibility two in mist and haze between 0000Z and 0600Z."