Chapter 8. Medical Facts for Pilots
Section 1. Fitness for
Flight
8-1-1. Fitness For Flight
a. Medical Certification.
1. All pilots except those flying gliders and free air balloons
must possess valid medical certificates in order to exercise the privileges of their
airman certificates. The periodic medical examinations required for medical certification
are conducted by designated Aviation Medical Examiners, who are physicians with a special
interest in aviation safety and training in aviation medicine.
2. The standards for medical certification are contained in 14 CFR
Part 67. Pilots who have a history of certain medical conditions described in these
standards are mandatorily disqualified from flying. These medical conditions include a
personality disorder manifested by overt acts, a psychosis, alcoholism, drug dependence,
epilepsy, an unexplained disturbance of consciousness, myocardial infarction, angina
pectoris and diabetes requiring medication for its control. Other medical conditions may
be temporarily disqualifying, such as acute infections, anemia, and peptic ulcer. Pilots
who do not meet medical standards may still be qualified under special issuance provisions
or the exemption process. This may require that either additional medical information be
provided or practical flight tests be conducted.
3. Student pilots should visit an Aviation Medical Examiner as soon
as possible in their flight training in order to avoid unnecessary training expenses
should they not meet the medical standards. For the same reason, the student pilot who
plans to enter commercial aviation should apply for the highest class of medical
certificate that might be necessary in the pilot's career.
CAUTION-
The CFR's prohibit a pilot who possesses a current medical certificate from performing
crewmember duties while the pilot has a known medical condition or increase of a known
medical condition that would make the pilot unable to meet the standards for the medical
certificate.
b. Illness.
1. Even a minor illness suffered in day-to-day living can seriously
degrade performance of many piloting tasks vital to safe flight. Illness can produce fever
and distracting symptoms that can impair judgment, memory, alertness, and the ability to
make calculations. Although symptoms from an illness may be under adequate control with a
medication, the medication itself may decrease pilot performance.
2. The safest rule is not to fly while suffering from any illness.
If this rule is considered too stringent for a particular illness, the pilot should
contact an Aviation Medical Examiner for advice.
c. Medication.
1.Pilot performance can be seriously degraded by both prescribed
and over-the-counter medications, as well as by the medical conditions for which they are
taken. Many medications, such as tranquilizers, sedatives, strong pain relievers, and
cough-suppressant preparations, have primary effects that may impair judgment, memory,
alertness, coordination, vision, and the ability to make calculations. Others, such as
antihistamines, blood pressure drugs, muscle relaxants, and agents to control diarrhea and
motion sickness, have side effects that may impair the same critical functions. Any
medication that depresses the nervous system, such as a sedative, tranquilizer or
antihistamine, can make a pilot much more susceptible to hypoxia.
2. The CFR's prohibit pilots from performing crewmember duties
while using any medication that affects the faculties in any way contrary to safety. The
safest rule is not to fly as a crewmember while taking any medication, unless approved to
do so by the FAA.
d. Alcohol.
1. Extensive research has provided a number of facts about the
hazards of alcohol consumption and flying. As little as one ounce of liquor, one bottle of
beer or four ounces of wine can impair flying skills, with the alcohol consumed in these
drinks being detectable in the breath and blood for at least 3 hours. Even after the body
completely destroys a moderate amount of alcohol, a pilot can still be severely impaired
for many hours by hangover. There is simply no way of increasing the destruction of
alcohol or alleviating a hangover. Alcohol also renders a pilot much more susceptible to
disorientation and hypoxia.
2. A consistently high alcohol related fatal aircraft accident rate
serves to emphasize that alcohol and flying are a potentially lethal combination. The
CFR's prohibit pilots from performing crewmember duties within 8 hours after drinking any
alcoholic beverage or while under the influence of alcohol. However, due to the slow
destruction of alcohol, a pilot may still be under influence 8 hours after drinking a
moderate amount of alcohol. Therefore, an excellent rule is to allow at least 12 to 24
hours between "bottle and throttle," depending on the amount of alcoholic
beverage consumed.
e. Fatigue
1. Fatigue continues to be one of the most treacherous hazards to
flight safety, as it may not be apparent to a pilot until serious errors are made. Fatigue
is best described as either acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term).
2. A normal occurrence of everyday living, acute fatigue is the
tiredness felt after long periods of physical and mental strain, including strenuous
muscular effort, immobility, heavy mental workload, strong emotional pressure, monotony,
and lack of sleep. Consequently, coordination and alertness, so vital to safe pilot
performance, can be reduced. Acute fatigue is prevented by adequate rest and sleep, as
well as by regular exercise and proper nutrition.
3. Chronic fatigue occurs when there is not enough time for full
recovery between episodes of acute fatigue. Performance continues to fall off, and
judgment becomes impaired so that unwarranted risks may be taken. Recovery from chronic
fatigue requires a prolonged period of rest.
f. Stress.
1. Stress from the pressures of everyday living can impair pilot
performance, often in very subtle ways. Difficulties, particularly at work, can occupy
thought processes enough to markedly decrease alertness. Distraction can so interfere with
judgment that unwarranted risks are taken, such as flying into deteriorating weather
conditions to keep on schedule. Stress and fatigue (see above) can be an extremely
hazardous combination.
2. Most pilots do not leave stress "on the ground."
Therefore, when more than usual difficulties are being experienced, a pilot should
consider delaying flight until these difficulties are satisfactorily resolved.
g. Emotion.
Certain emotionally upsetting events, including a serious argument, death
of a family member, separation or divorce, loss of job, and financial catastrophe, can
render a pilot unable to fly an aircraft safely. The emotions of anger, depression, and
anxiety from such events not only decrease alertness but also may lead to taking risks
that border on self-destruction. Any pilot who experiences an emotionally upsetting event
should not fly until satisfactorily recovered from it.
h. Personal Checklist. Aircraft accident statistics show that
pilots should be conducting preflight checklists on themselves as well as their aircraft
for pilot impairment contributes to many more accidents than failures of aircraft systems.
A personal checklist, which includes all of the categories of pilot impairment as
discussed in this section, that can be easily committed to memory is being distributed by
the FAA in the form of a wallet-sized card.
i. PERSONAL CHECKLIST. I'm physically and mentally safe to fly; not
being impaired by:
Illness
Medication
Stress
Alcohol
Fatigue
Emotion
8-1-2. Effects of Altitude
a. Hypoxia.
1. Hypoxia is a state of oxygen deficiency in the body sufficient
to impair functions of the brain and other organs. Hypoxia from exposure to altitude is
due only to the reduced barometric pressures encountered at altitude, for the
concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere remains about 21 percent from the ground out to
space.
2. Although a deterioration in night vision occurs at a cabin
pressure altitude as low as 5,000 feet, other significant effects of altitude hypoxia
usually do not occur in the normal healthy pilot below 12,000 feet. From 12,000 to 15,000
feet of altitude, judgment, memory, alertness, coordination and ability to make
calculations are impaired, and headache, drowsiness, dizziness and either a sense of
well-being (euphoria) or belligerence occur. The effects appear following increasingly
shorter periods of exposure to increasing altitude. In fact, pilot performance can
seriously deteriorate within 15 minutes at 15,000 feet.
3. At cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet, the periphery of
the visual field grays out to a point where only central vision remains (tunnel vision). A
blue coloration (cyanosis) of the fingernails and lips develops. The ability to take
corrective and protective action is lost in 20 to 30 minutes at 18,000 feet and 5 to 12
minutes at 20,000 feet, followed soon thereafter by unconsciousness.
4. The altitude at which significant effects of hypoxia occur can
be lowered by a number of factors. Carbon monoxide inhaled in smoking or from exhaust
fumes, lowered hemoglobin (anemia), and certain medications can reduce the oxygen-carrying
capacity of the blood to the degree that the amount of oxygen provided to body tissues
will already be equivalent to the oxygen provided to the tissues when exposed to a cabin
pressure altitude of several thousand feet. Small amounts of alcohol and low doses of
certain drugs, such as antihistamines, tranquilizers, sedatives and analgesics can,
through their depressant action, render the brain much more susceptible to hypoxia.
Extreme heat and cold, fever, and anxiety increase the body's demand for oxygen, and hence
its susceptibility to hypoxia.
5. The effects of hypoxia are usually quite difficult to recognize,
especially when they occur gradually. Since symptoms of hypoxia do not vary in an
individual, the ability to recognize hypoxia can be greatly improved by experiencing and
witnessing the effects of hypoxia during an altitude chamber "flight." The FAA
provides this opportunity through aviation physiology training, which is conducted at the
FAA Civil Aeromedical Institute and at many military facilities across the U.S., to attend
the Physiological Training Program at the Civil Aeromedical Institute, Mike Monroney
Aeronautical Center, Oklahoma City, OK, contact by telephone (405) 954-6212, or by writing
Airmen Education Program Branch, AAM-420, CAMI, Mike Monroney Aeronautical Center, P.O.
Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125.
NOTE-
To attend the physiological training program at one of the military installations having
the training capability, an application form and a fee must be submitted. Full particulars
about location, fees, scheduling procedures, course content, individual requirements,
etc., are contained in the physiological training application, form number AC 3150-7,
which is obtained by contacting the accident prevention specialist or the office forms
manager in the nearest FAA office.
6. Hypoxia is prevented by heeding factors that reduce tolerance to
altitude, by enriching the inspired air with oxygen from an appropriate oxygen system, and
by maintaining a comfortable, safe cabin pressure altitude. For optimum protection, pilots
are encouraged to use supplemental oxygen above 10,000 feet during the day, and above
5,000 feet at night. The CFR's require that at the minimum, flight crew be provided with
and use supplemental oxygen after 30 minutes of exposure to cabin pressure altitudes
between 12,500 and 14,000 feet and immediately on exposure to cabin pressure altitudes
above 14,000 feet. Every occupant of the aircraft must be provided with supplemental
oxygen at cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet.
b. Ear Block.
1. As the aircraft cabin pressure decreases during ascent, the
expanding air in the middle ear pushes the eustachian tube open, and by escaping down it
to the nasal passages, equalizes in pressure with the cabin pressure. But during descent,
the pilot must periodically open the eustachian tube to equalize pressure. This can be
accomplished by swallowing, yawning, tensing muscles in the throat, or if these do not
work, by a combination of closing the mouth, pinching the nose closed, and attempting to
blow through the nostrils (Valsalva maneuver).
2. Either an upper respiratory infection, such as a cold or sore
throat, or a nasal allergic condition can produce enough congestion around the eustachian
tube to make equalization difficult. Consequently, the difference in pressure between the
middle ear and aircraft cabin can build up to a level that will hold the eustachian tube
closed, making equalization difficult if not impossible. The problem is commonly referred
to as an "ear block."
3. An ear block produces severe ear pain and loss of hearing that
can last from several hours to several days. Rupture of the ear drum can occur in flight
or after landing. Fluid can accumulate in the middle ear and become infected.
4. An ear block is prevented by not flying with an upper
respiratory infection or nasal allergic condition. Adequate protection is usually not
provided by decongestant sprays or drops to reduce congestion around the eustachian tubes.
Oral decongestants have side effects that can significantly impair pilot performance.
5. If an ear block does not clear shortly after landing, a
physician should be consulted.
c. Sinus Block.
1. During ascent and descent, air pressure in the sinuses equalizes
with the aircraft cabin pressure through small openings that connect the sinuses to the
nasal passages. Either an upper respiratory infection, such as a cold or sinusitis, or a
nasal allergic condition can produce enough congestion around an opening to slow
equalization, and as the difference in pressure between the sinus and cabin mounts,
eventually plug the opening. This "sinus block" occurs most frequently during
descent.
2. A sinus block can occur in the frontal sinuses, located above
each eyebrow, or in the maxillary sinuses, located in each upper cheek. It will usually
produce excruciating pain over the sinus area. A maxillary sinus block can also make the
upper teeth ache. Bloody mucus may discharge from the nasal passages.
3. A sinus block is prevented by not flying with an upper
respiratory infection or nasal allergic condition. Adequate protection is usually not
provided by decongestant sprays or drops to reduce congestion around the sinus openings.
Oral decongestants have side effects that can impair pilot performance.
4. If a sinus block does not clear shortly after landing, a
physician should be consulted.
d. Decompression Sickness After Scuba Diving.
1. A pilot or passenger who intends to fly after scuba diving
should allow the body sufficient time to rid itself of excess nitrogen absorbed during
diving. If not, decompression sickness due to evolved gas can occur during exposure to low
altitude and create a serious inflight emergency.
2. The recommended waiting time before going to flight altitudes of
up to 8,000 feet is at least 12 hours after diving which has not required controlled
ascent (nondecompression stop diving), and at least 24 hours after diving which has
required controlled ascent (decompression stop diving). The waiting time before going to
flight altitudes above 8,000 feet should be at least 24 hours after any SCUBA dive. These
recommended altitudes are actual flight altitudes above mean sea level (AMSL) and not
pressurized cabin altitudes. This takes into consideration the risk of decompression of
the aircraft during flight.
8-1-3. Hyperventilation in Flight
a. Hyperventilation, or an abnormal increase in the volume of air
breathed in and out of the lungs, can occur subconsciously when a stressful situation is
encountered in flight. As hyperventilation "blows off" excessive carbon dioxide
from the body, a pilot can experience symptoms of lightheadedness, suffocation,
drowsiness, tingling in the extremities, and coolness and react to them with even greater
hyperventilation. Incapacitation can eventually result from incoordination,
disorientation, and painful muscle spasms. Finally, unconsciousness can occur.
b. The symptoms of hyperventilation subside within a few minutes
after the rate and depth of breathing are consciously brought back under control. The
buildup of carbon dioxide in the body can be hastened by controlled breathing in and out
of a paper bag held over the nose and mouth.
c. Early symptoms of hyperventilation and hypoxia are similar.
Moreover, hyperventilation and hypoxia can occur at the same time. Therefore, if a pilot
is using an oxygen system when symptoms are experienced, the oxygen regulator should
immediately be set to deliver 100 percent oxygen, and then the system checked to assure
that it has been functioning effectively before giving attention to rate and depth of
breathing.
8-1-4. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning in Flight
a. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas
contained in exhaust fumes. When breathed even in minute quantities over a period of time,
it can significantly reduce the ability of the blood to carry oxygen. Consequently,
effects of hypoxia occur.
b. Most heaters in light aircraft work by air flowing over the
manifold. Use of these heaters while exhaust fumes are escaping through manifold cracks
and seals is responsible every year for several nonfatal and fatal aircraft accidents from
carbon monoxide poisoning.
c. A pilot who detects the odor of exhaust or experiences symptoms
of headache, drowsiness, or dizziness while using the heater should suspect carbon
monoxide poisoning, and immediately shut off the heater and open air vents. If symptoms
are severe or continue after landing, medical treatment should be sought.
8-1-5. Illusions in Flight
a. Introduction. Many different illusions can be experienced in
flight. Some can lead to spatial disorientation. Others can lead to landing errors.
Illusions rank among the most common factors cited as contributing to fatal aircraft
accidents.
b. Illusions Leading to Spatial Disorientation.
1. Various complex motions and forces and certain visual scenes
encountered in flight can create illusions of motion and position. Spatial disorientation
from these illusions can be prevented only by visual reference to reliable, fixed points
on the ground or to flight instruments.
2. The leans. An abrupt correction of a banked attitude, which has
been entered too slowly to stimulate the motion sensing system in the inner ear, can
create the illusion of banking in the opposite direction. The disoriented pilot will roll
the aircraft back into its original dangerous attitude, or if level flight is maintained,
will feel compelled to lean in the perceived vertical plane until this illusion subsides.
(a) Coriolis illusion. An abrupt head movement in a prolonged
constant-rate turn that has ceased stimulating the motion sensing system can create the
illusion of rotation or movement in an entirely different axis. The disoriented pilot will
maneuver the aircraft into a dangerous attitude in an attempt to stop rotation. This most
overwhelming of all illusions in flight may be prevented by not making sudden, extreme
head movements, particularly while making prolonged constant-rate turns under IFR
conditions.
(b) Graveyard spin. A proper recovery from a spin that has ceased
stimulating the motion sensing system can create the illusion of spinning in the opposite
direction. The disoriented pilot will return the aircraft to its original spin.
(c) Graveyard spiral. An observed loss of altitude during a
coordinated constant-rate turn that has ceased stimulating the motion sensing system can
create the illusion of being in a descent with the wings level. The disoriented pilot will
pull back on the controls, tightening the spiral and increasing the loss of altitude.
(d) Somatogravic illusion. A rapid acceleration during takeoff can
create the illusion of being in a nose up attitude. The disoriented pilot will push the
aircraft into a nose low, or dive attitude. A rapid deceleration by a quick reduction of
the throttles can have the opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot pulling the
aircraft into a nose up, or stall attitude.
(e) Inversion illusion. An abrupt change from climb to straight and
level flight can create the illusion of tumbling backwards. The disoriented pilot will
push the aircraft abruptly into a nose low attitude, possibly intensifying this illusion.
(f) Elevator illusion. An abrupt upward vertical acceleration,
usually by an updraft, can create the illusion of being in a climb. The disoriented pilot
will push the aircraft into a nose low attitude. An abrupt downward vertical acceleration,
usually by a downdraft, has the opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot pulling the
aircraft into a nose up attitude.
(g) False horizon. Sloping cloud formations, an obscured horizon, a
dark scene spread with ground lights and stars, and certain geometric patterns of ground
light can create illusions of not being aligned correctly with the actual horizon. The
disoriented pilot will place the aircraft in a dangerous attitude.
(h) Autokinesis. In the dark, a static light will appear to move
about when stared at for many seconds. The disoriented pilot will lose control of the
aircraft in attempting to align it with the light.
3. Illusions Leading to Landing Errors.
(a) Various surface features and atmospheric conditions encountered
in landing can create illusions of incorrect height above and distance from the runway
threshold. Landing errors from these illusions can be prevented by anticipating them
during approaches, aerial visual inspection of unfamiliar airports before landing, using
electronic glide slope or VASI systems when available, and maintaining optimum proficiency
in landing procedures.
(b) Runway width illusion. A narrower-than- usual runway can create
the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who
does not recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach, with the risk of striking
objects along the approach path or landing short. A wider-than-usual runway can have the
opposite effect, with the risk of leveling out high and landing hard or overshooting the
runway.
(c) Runway and terrain slopes illusion. An upsloping runway,
upsloping terrain, or both, can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher
altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a
lower approach. A downsloping runway, downsloping approach terrain, or both, can have the
opposite effect.
(d) Featureless terrain illusion. An absence of ground features, as
when landing over water, darkened areas, and terrain made featureless by snow, can create
the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who
does not recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach
(e) Atmospheric illusions. Rain on the windscreen can create the
illusion of greater height, and atmospheric haze the illusion of being at a greater
distance from the runway. The pilot who does not recognize these illusions will fly a
lower approach. Penetration of fog can create the illusion of pitching up. The pilot who
does not recognize this illusion will steepen the approach, often quite abruptly.
(f) Ground lighting illusions. Lights along a straight path, such
as a road, and even lights on moving trains can be mistaken for runway and approach
lights. Bright runway and approach lighting systems, especially where few lights
illuminate the surrounding terrain, may create the illusion of less distance to the
runway. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a higher approach.
Conversely, the pilot overflying terrain which has few lights to provide height cues may
make a lower than normal approach.
8-1-6. Vision in Flight
a. Introduction. Of the body senses, vision is the most important
for safe flight. Major factors that determine how effectively vision can be used are the
level of illumination and the technique of scanning the sky for other aircraft.
b. Vision Under Dim and Bright Illumination.
1. Under conditions of dim illumination, small print and colors on
aeronautical charts and aircraft instruments become unreadable unless adequate cockpit
lighting is available. Moreover, another aircraft must be much closer to be seen unless
its navigation lights are on.
2. In darkness, vision becomes more sensitive to light, a process
called dark adaptation. Although exposure to total darkness for at least 30 minutes is
required for complete dark adaptation, a pilot can achieve a moderate degree of dark
adaptation within 20 minutes under dim red cockpit lighting. Since red light severely
distorts colors, especially on aeronautical charts, and can cause serious difficulty in
focusing the eyes on objects inside the aircraft, its use is advisable only where optimum
outside night vision capability is necessary. Even so, white cockpit lighting must be
available when needed for map and instrument reading, especially under IFR conditions.
Dark adaptation is impaired by exposure to cabin pressure altitudes above 5,000 feet,
carbon monoxide inhaled in smoking and from exhaust fumes, deficiency of Vitamin A in the
diet, and by prolonged exposure to bright sunlight. Since any degree of dark adaptation is
lost within a few seconds of viewing a bright light, a pilot should close one eye when
using a light to preserve some degree of night vision.
3. Excessive illumination, especially from light reflected off the
canopy, surfaces inside the aircraft, clouds, water, snow, and desert terrain, can produce
glare, with uncomfortable squinting, watering of the eyes, and even temporary blindness.
Sunglasses for protection from glare should absorb at least 85 percent of visible light
(15 percent transmittance) and all colors equally (neutral transmittance), with negligible
image distortion from refractive and prismatic errors.
c. Scanning for Other Aircraft.
1. Scanning the sky for other aircraft is a key factor in collision
avoidance. It should be used continuously by the pilot and copilot (or right seat
passenger) to cover all areas of the sky visible from the cockpit. Although pilots must
meet specific visual acuity requirements, the ability to read an eye chart does not ensure
that one will be able to efficiently spot other aircraft. Pilots must develop an effective
scanning technique which maximizes one's visual capabilities. The probability of spotting
a potential collision threat obviously increases with the time spent looking outside the
cockpit. Thus, one must use timesharing techniques to efficiently scan the surrounding
airspace while monitoring instruments as well.
2. While the eyes can observe an approximate 200 degree arc of the
horizon at one glance, only a very small center area called the fovea, in the rear of the
eye, has the ability to send clear, sharply focused messages to the brain. All other
visual information that is not processed directly through the fovea will be of less
detail. An aircraft at a distance of 7 miles which appears in sharp focus within the
foveal center of vision would have to be as close as 7/10
of a mile in order to be recognized if it were outside of foveal vision. Because the eyes
can focus only on this narrow viewing area, effective scanning is accomplished with a
series of short, regularly spaced eye movements that bring successive areas of the sky
into the central visual field. Each movement should not exceed 10 degrees, and each area
should be observed for at least 1 second to enable detection. Although horizontal
back-and-forth eye movements seem preferred by most pilots, each pilot should develop a
scanning pattern that is most comfortable and then adhere to it to assure optimum
scanning.
3. Studies show that the time a pilot spends on visual tasks inside
the cabin should represent no more that 1/4 to 1/3
of the scan time outside, or no more than 4 to 5 seconds on the instrument panel for every
16 seconds outside. Since the brain is already trained to process sight information that
is presented from left to right, one may find it easier to start scanning over the left
shoulder and proceed across the windshield to the right.
4. Pilots should realize that their eyes may require several
seconds to refocus when switching views between items in the cockpit and distant objects.
The eyes will also tire more quickly when forced to adjust to distances immediately after
close-up focus, as required for scanning the instrument panel. Eye fatigue can be reduced
by looking from the instrument panel to the left wing past the wing tip to the center of
the first scan quadrant when beginning the exterior scan. After having scanned from left
to right, allow the eyes to return to the cabin along the right wing from its tip inward.
Once back inside, one should automatically commence the panel scan.
5. Effective scanning also helps avoid "empty- field
myopia." This condition usually occurs when flying above the clouds or in a haze
layer that provides nothing specific to focus on outside the aircraft. This causes the
eyes to relax and seek a comfortable focal distance which may range from 10 to 30 feet.
For the pilot, this means looking without seeing, which is dangerous.
8-1-7. Aerobatic Flight
a. Pilots planning to engage in aerobatics should be aware of the
physiological stresses associated with accelerative forces during aerobatic maneuvers.
Many prospective aerobatic trainees enthusiastically enter aerobatic instruction but find
their first experiences with G forces to be unanticipated and very uncomfortable. To
minimize or avoid potential adverse effects, the aerobatic instructor and trainee must
have a basic understanding of the physiology of G force adaptation.
b. Forces experienced with a rapid push-over maneuver result in the
blood and body organs being displaced toward the head. Depending on forces involved and
individual tolerance, a pilot may experience discomfort, headache, "red-out,"
and even unconsciousness.
c. Forces experienced with a rapid pull-up maneuver result in the
blood and body organ displacement toward the lower part of the body away from the head.
Since the brain requires continuous blood circulation for an adequate oxygen supply, there
is a physiologic limit to the time the pilot can tolerate higher forces before losing
consciousness. As the blood circulation to the brain decreases as a result of forces
involved, a pilot will experience "narrowing" of visual fields,
"gray-out," "black-out," and unconsciousness. Even a brief loss of
consciousness in a maneuver can lead to improper control movement causing structural
failure of the aircraft or collision with another object or terrain.
d. In steep turns, the centrifugal forces tend to push the pilot
into the seat, thereby resulting in blood and body organ displacement toward the lower
part of the body as in the case of rapid pull-up maneuvers and with the same physiologic
effects and symptoms.
e. Physiologically, humans progressively adapt to imposed strains
and stress, and with practice, any maneuver will have decreasing effect. Tolerance to G
forces is dependent on human physiology and the individual pilot. These factors include
the skeletal anatomy, the cardiovascular architecture, the nervous system, the quality of
the blood, the general physical state, and experience and recency of exposure. The pilot
should consult an Aviation Medical Examiner prior to aerobatic training and be aware that
poor physical condition can reduce tolerance to accelerative forces.
f. The above information provides pilots with a brief summary of
the physiologic effects of G forces. It does not address methods of
"counteracting" these effects. There are numerous references on the subject of G
forces during aerobatics available to pilots. Among these are "G Effects on the Pilot
During Aerobatics," FAA-AM-72-28, and "G Incapacitation in Aerobatic Pilots: A
Flight Hazard" FAA-AM-82-13. These are available from the National Technical
Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
REFERENCE-
FAA AC 91-61, A Hazard in Aerobatics: Effects of G-forces on Pilots.
8-1-8. Judgment Aspects of Collision Avoidance
a. Introduction. The most important aspects of vision and the
techniques to scan for other aircraft are described in paragraph 8-1-6,
Vision in Flight. Pilots should also be familiar with the following information to reduce
the possibility of mid-air collisions.
b. Determining Relative Altitude. Use the horizon as a reference
point. If the other aircraft is above the horizon, it is probably on a higher flight path.
If the aircraft appears to be below the horizon, it is probably flying at a lower
altitude.
c. Taking Appropriate Action. Pilots should be familiar with rules
on right-of-way, so if an aircraft is on an obvious collision course, one can take
immediate evasive action, preferably in compliance with applicable Federal Aviation
Regulations.
d. Consider Multiple Threats. The decision to climb, descend, or
turn is a matter of personal judgment, but one should anticipate that the other pilot may
also be making a quick maneuver. Watch the other aircraft during the maneuver and begin
your scanning again immediately since there may be other aircraft in the area.
e. Collision Course Targets: Any aircraft that appears to have no
relative motion and stays in one scan quadrant is likely to be on a collision course.
Also, if a target shows no lateral or vertical motion, but increases in size, take
evasive action.
f. Recognize High Hazard Areas.
1. Airways, especially near VOR's, and Class B, Class C, Class D,
and Class E surface areas are places where aircraft tend to cluster.
2. Remember, most collisions occur during days when the weather is
good. Being in a "radar environment" still requires vigilance to avoid
collisions.
g. Cockpit Management. Studying maps, checklists, and manuals
before flight, with other proper preflight planning; e.g., noting necessary radio
frequencies and organizing cockpit materials, can reduce the amount of time required to
look at these items during flight, permitting more scan time.
h. Windshield Conditions. Dirty or bug-smeared windshields can
greatly reduce the ability of pilots to see other aircraft. Keep a clean windshield.
i. Visibility Conditions. Smoke, haze, dust, rain, and flying
towards the sun can also greatly reduce the ability to detect targets.
j. Visual Obstructions in the Cockpit.
1. Pilots need to move their heads to see around blind spots caused
by fixed aircraft structures, such as door posts, wings, etc. It will be necessary at
times to maneuver the aircraft; e.g., lift a wing, to facilitate seeing.
2. Pilots must insure curtains and other cockpit objects; e.g.,
maps on glare shield, are removed and stowed during flight.
k. Lights On.
1. Day or night, use of exterior lights can greatly increase the
conspicuity of any aircraft.
2. Keep interior lights low at night.
l. ATC support. ATC facilities often provide radar traffic
advisories on a workload-permitting basis. Flight through Class C and Class D airspace
requires communication with ATC. Use this support whenever possible or when required.
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